BIOLOGY DEPARTMENT, MSET DIVISION
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1
(BIO-207-504), SPRING 2008
LECTURE
OUTLINE
|
Instructor |
Dr. Chaya
Gopalan |
|
Lecture |
SM-265 Section 504 11:00-11:50PM MWF |
|
Office |
SM-227 |
|
Phone |
(314)
513-4892 |
|
e-mail |
|
|
Web Page |
http://users.stlcc.edu/cgopalan |
|
Office Hours |
To be announced |
|
Text |
Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology, 7th ed.
by Martini |
|
Lab Manual |
Lab manuals and atlas packaged with the text |
|
Credit |
Three Lectures and one Lab = 4 credit hours |
|
Prerequisite |
BIO-111 |
|
Course Objective |
This
course covers an introduction to the structural and functional organization
of the human body where Integumentary, musculoskeletal and nervous systems
will be discussed in detail. |
|
Purpose |
Anatomy and Physiology course is a prerequisite for
majority of the allied health professions. |
|
Honors |
This course can be taken as an Honors course for those
with the GPA of at least 3.5. Students with 3.5 GPA and 12 credit hours of
work are also encouraged to join Phi Theta Kappa organization to benefit from
scholarship opportunities and more. We also have an active research lab in
the department studying the effect of certain sugars on diabetes. Meet with
the Instructor immediately if you are interested. Last day to sign up for
honors is March 7. |
|
Field trip |
A field trip to the cadaver lab at the |
Grading Scale: Ninety-100% is an A, 80-89% is a B,
70-79% is a C, 60-69% is a D, 59% and below is an F. Last day to withdraw from
regular semester course with a grade of "W" is Friday, April 11. If a student is not successful in obtaining a
passing grade, an F will be automatically given. Final grade is based upon the
completion of the following assignments.
Each assignment carries the specific weight shown.
Number |
Weight |
Name |
|
1 |
15 |
Lecture Test 1 |
|
2 |
15 |
Lecture Test 2 |
|
3 |
15 |
Lecture Test 3 |
|
4 |
15 |
Lecture Test 4 |
|
5 |
15 |
Final Exam (Lecture Test 5) |
|
6 |
25 |
Lab Grade |
|
7 |
15 |
Quizzes |
There will be 5
unit tests. The fifth test is also considered as the final exam, which is not a
comprehensive exam. The total number of points earned towards quizzes, class
participation, and other assignments will be added up at the end of the
semester. If the weight of the extra credit is more than your lowest test
grade, extra credit grade will replace the lowest test grade or a missed test.
Accessories: The Science and
Attendance: Lectures will include materials
not found in the text, as well as elucidation of text materials. Thus,
attendance is very critical. Accurate records of attendance will be maintained.
Attendance for lecture tests is required during your scheduled date and time.
If a student could not be present for a scheduled test due to sickness or an
unavoidable circumstance, contact the instructor as soon as possible. In such
case, the test will be given at a mutually agreeable time. If the student has
not contacted the teacher prior to the test and does not attend a scheduled
test and wants to take the test at a later time, a test will be given and
graded at 80% scale (20% points are cut).
In case class is cancelled, the test will be given at the next scheduled class
period. Short quizzes, announced or unannounced, will be given periodically to
check student progress and encourage regular study habits. If you are late to
class and if other students have already taken the quiz, the quiz will not be
given at a later time. No make ups will
be given for quizzes or other in-class activities that would contribute towards
extra credit except in an extremely difficult situation. Students are
responsible to obtain handouts or important announcements shared when they were
absent either by contacting the instructor directly or through their
classmates.
Cell phone usage
such as receiving calls or making calls or for any other purpose is strictly
prohibited. It is strongly advised that the cell phone must not be brought to
the classroom. If one has to carry it, it must be muted. If the cell phone
distracts the class, 5 points will be cut from the extra credit section each
time.
Students are
required to successfully complete both lecture and laboratory portions of this
course in the same semester. One must earn a lab grade of at least 50% in order
to qualify for a passing grade in this course.
TENTATIVE SCHEDULE
|
WEEK |
DATE |
Lecture Assignment |
|
1 |
1/14-18 |
Chapter 1 Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology Chapter 2 The Chemical Level |
|
2 |
1/23-25 |
Chapter 2 The Chemical Level continued Chapter 3 The Cellular level |
|
3 |
1/28-2/1 |
Chapter 3 The Cellular level continued Chapter 4 The Tissue Level |
|
4 |
2/4 2/6 2/8 |
Chapter 4 Tissue Level continued LECTURE TEST 1 Chapter 5 The Integumentary System |
|
5 |
2/11-2/15 |
Chapter 5 The Integumentary System continued Chapter 6 The Osseous Tissue and Bone Structure |
|
6 |
2/20-2/22 |
Chapter 7 The Axial Skeleton Chapter 8 The Appendicular Skeleton |
|
7 |
2/25-27 2/29 |
Chapter 9 Articulations LECTURE TEST 2 |
|
8 |
3/3-3/7 |
Chapter 10 Muscle Tissue |
|
9 |
3/17-3/21 |
Chapter 11 The Muscular System
Chapter 12
Neural Tissue |
|
10 |
3/24-28 |
Chapter 12 Neural Tissue continued |
|
11 |
3/31 4/2-4/4 |
LECTURE TEST 3 Chapter 13 The Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerves and Spinal
Reflexes |
|
12 |
4/7-4/11 |
Chapter 14 The Brain and Cranial Nerves
|
|
13 |
4/14-4/18 |
Chapter 14 The Brain and Cranial Nerves continued Chapter 15 Neural Integration I: Sensory Pathways and the
Somatic Nervous System |
|
14 |
4/21 4/23-4/25 |
LECTURE TEST 4 Chapter 16 Neural Integration II: Autonomic Nervous System
and Higher Order Functions |
|
15 |
4/28-5/2 |
Chapter 16 Autonomic Nervous System continued Chapter 17 The Special Senses |
|
16 |
5/5 |
Chapter 17 The Special Senses continued |
|
17 |
FINAL EXAM |
Date and time will be announced |
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1 An
introduction to Anatomy and Physiology, 7
Chapter 2 The
chemical level of organization, 9
Chapter 3 The
cellular level of organization, 11
Chapter 4 The
tissue level of organization, 14
Chapter 5 The
integumentary system, 17
Chapter 6 Osseous
tissue and Bone structure, 20
Chapter 7 The
axial skeleton, 23
Chapter 8 The appendicular
skeleton, 27
Chapter 9 Articulations,
29
Chapter 10 Muscle
tissue, 32
Chapter 11 The
muscular system, 35
Chapter 12 Neural
tissue, 36
Chapter 13 The
spinal cord, spinal nerves and spinal reflexes, 39
Chapter 14 The
brain and cranial nerves, 42
Chapter 15 Neural
integration I: Sensory pathways and the somatic motor system,
47
Chapter 16 Neural
integration II: The autonomic nervous system and higher-order
Functions, 49
Chapter 17 The
special senses, 52
Chapter 1
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY
Anatomy:
Subdivisions- Systemic Anatomy-
Gross Anatomy-
Microscopic Anatomy-
Cytology:
Histology:
Physiology: Systemic Physiology-
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL
ORGANIZATION: Chemical
(molecular)® Cellular ® Tissue® Organ ® Organ
system ® Organism (Fig. 1-1, page 7).
Organ Systems (pages 9-10): Eleven systems:
Integumentary-
Skeletal-
Muscular-
Nervous-
Endocrine-
Cardiovascular-
Lymphatic and immune-
Respiratory-
Digestive-
Urinary-
Reproductive-
HOMEOSTASIS (pages 11-14): a steady state.
Three Components (receptor, control center, and the
effector) help maintain homeostasis (Fig. 1-3, page 12).
Feedback Systems (pages 12-13): help maintain homeostasis. Two types:
Negative feedback- when a change is reduced back to normal;
most common (Fig.1-4, page 13)
Positive feedback- when a change is made bigger and bigger
(Fig. 1-5, page 14).
***Work on the topics below in the lab***
SUPERFICIAL ANATOMY: ANATOMICAL LANDMARKS
Anatomical position: (Fig. 1.6 page 16)
Regions: Refer to Fig. 1-6, page16 and Table 1-2, page 17.
Anatomical Directions: superior-inferior; anterior (ventral)-posterior (dorsal);
medial-lateral; superficial-deep and proximal-distal (Table 1-3, page 19; Fig.
1-8, page 18).
Planes through the human body: (Fig.1-9 and Table 1-4, page 20). Sagittal-
Transverse
(cross or horizontal)-
Coronal or
Frontal-
Ventral Body Cavity (Fig. 1-10, page 21): Thoracic and abdominopelvic (page 22)
cavities.
Pericardial and pleural cavities:
REVIEW QUESTIONS
12.
What
is mediastinum? What do you find in the mediastinum.
Chapter 2
THE CHEMICAL LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
Atoms- (Fig. 2-1, page 27)
Elements- (page 28)
Atoms through chemical bonding
become molecules.
Chemical bonds-
Ionic bond: cation/anion
(Fig. 2-3, page 31)- attraction between opposite charges.
Covalent bond: (Fig. 2-4, page 31)- electrons share the outer
Orbit.
Two main types of molecules are
inorganic and organic.
INORGANIC MOLECULES
Water (page 37)-
Structure: Fig. 2-5, page 32
Buffers- page
41
Salts- page
41
ORGANIC MOLECULES
Carbohydrates- (pages 42-44)
Monosaccharides:
Disaccharides:
Polysaccharides:
Lipids- (pages 44-48)
Fatty acids- two types: saturated and unsaturated.
Triglycerides (neutral fat)-
Steroids- cholesterol-
Phospholipids-
Proteins- (pages 49-52) are chains of amino acids linked by
peptide
bonds.
Four forms: Primary, secondary,
tertiary, and quaternary structures: (Fig. 2-20, page 51)
Enzymes- as examples of proteins (pages 52-53)
Structure: active site.
Nucleic Acids- (pages 54-55)
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic acid
(RNA):
Nucleotide- both
DNA and RNA are made up of
There are four different types of
nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) or
uracil (U).
Nucleotides in DNA contain adenine,
guanine, cytosine and thymine.
Nucleotides in RNA contain adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil.
Complementary base pairing- adenine pairs with thymine (DNA)
or uracil (RNA) and guanine pairs with cytosine.
Double Helix Structure of DNA- the two nucleotide chains of DNA
are twisted into a double helix (Fig. 2.23, page 55).
Types of RNA (page
55)- messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
High-Energy Compounds: ATP
(Adenosine triphosphate)- an important high-energy compound (Fig. 2-24, page 56).
REVIEW QUESTIONS
16.
Define
a nucleotide.
17.
What
are the four bases of DNA? How do they pair? And what are the four bases of
RNA? How do they pair?
18.
Compare DNA and RNA.
19.
What is the most important high-energy compound?
Describe its structure.
Chapter 3
THE CELLULAR LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
CELL STRUCTURE (Fig. 3-1, page 64)-
1. CELL MEMBRANE-
Structure-
made up of phospholipids and proteins and is selectively permeable (Fig. 3-2,
page 66).
Functions-
One of the functions of the cell membrane is its ability to transport certain
things across. Many types of transportation could be found some of which are
discussed below (page 63):
DIFFUSION- movement of solute from
higher to lower concentration (Figs. 3-14, 15, page 88).
OSMOSIS- diffusion of water
(solvent) across a membrane from lower to higher concentration of solute (Fig.
3-16, page 66).
Osmotic pressure- the force of water movement across
the membrane.
Osmolarity (tonicity)- total solute
concentration in a solution (Fig. 3-17, page 89).
Isotonic-
solute concentration is the same on both sides of the
membrane.
Hypotonic-
when solute concentration is lower than that of cytoplasm.
Hypertonic-
when solute concentration is higher than that of cytoplasm.
Carrier-mediated transport:
FACILITATED DIFFUSION- is diffusion
by carrier proteins (Fig. 3-18, page
90).
ACTIVE TRANSPORT- movement of solute
from lower to higher
concentration.
Requires energy (ATP). Eg. Sodium-Potassium exchange pump (Fig. 3-19, page 91).
VESICULAR TRANSPORT
Endocytosis- importation of extracellular material
into the cell (Fig. 3-22a, page 93).
Phagocytosis-
cell eating
Pinocytosis-
cell drinking
Exocytosis- exportation of intracellular
material (Fig. 3-22b, page 93).
2. CYTOPLASM (page 68) - includes
two major subdivisions.
Organelles- are subdivided into membranous and
nonmembranous organelles (Table 3-1, page 65).
***Work on this section in the
lab***
Nonmembranous Organelles-
Cytoskeleton (pages 68-70)- consists of
microfilaments (5-6 nm), intermediate filaments (7-11 nm), thick filaments (15
nm), and microtubules (25 nm) (Fig. 3-3, page 69).
Centrioles- important in the movement of
chromosomes to opposite poles during cell division (Fig. 3-4a, page 71).
Centrosome: dense cytoplasm; contains
centrioles.
Cilia (Fig. 3-4b, page 71)- Cilia are
small hair-like projections that protrude from the surfaces of many types of
cells. Aid in locomotion.
Ribosomes (pages 71-72)- made up of RNA and protein; has
large and small
Membranous Organelles-
Endoplasmic Reticulum- an intracellular system of
membranes (Fig. 3-5, page 72).
Two types:
Rough endoplasmic reticulum- covered with ribosomes and involved in protein synthesis.
Smooth
endoplasmic reticulum- contains no ribosomes; important in the synthesis of
many types of lipids, stores calcium, and also detoxifies drugs and other
chemicals in the body.
Golgi Complex- a specialized cellular organelle
composed of a set of cytoplasmic membranes. Functions principally as a protein
processing and packaging plant (Fig. 3-6, 7, pages 73-74).
Lysosomes- are vesicles filled with digestive
enzymes. Function as the digestive system within the cell (Fig. 3.23, page 81).
Peroxisomes- absorb and neutralize toxins.
Mitochondria- powerhouses of the cell (Fig. 3-9,
page 77).
3. NUCLEUS- contains chromatin (DNA and protein) and serves
as the control center of the cell (Fig. 3-10, page 78).
Nucleolus- Fig.3-10, page 78.
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS- involves
transcription and translation.
Gene-
Base triplet- a sequence of three
nucleotide bases on the DNA
Codon- a sequence of three
nucleotide bases on the messenger RNA
Anticodon-
Transcription (RNA Synthesis)- production of RNA (messenger RNA [mRNA]) which carries
information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm (Fig. 3-12, page 81).
1.
separation of the two strands of DNA: sense and
antisense
2.
antisense strand serves as the template
3.
a complementary RNA strand is synthesized (mRNA)
4.
separation of RNA strand from the antisense strand
5.
two strands of DNA rejoin.
Translation: mRNA thus produced is now used in
the synthesis of a peptide or a protein (Fig. 3-13, pages 82-83).
1.
mRNA strand attaches to ribosomal subunit
2.
exposed codons attract anticodons on tRNA
3.
codon-anticodon pairing leaves amino acid in place
4.
this process repeats (elongation)
5. amino acids are attached to one
another by peptide
bond forming a peptide.
6. stop codon terminates the
process.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
Define
a cell. Name the principal parts of the cell.
2.
Describe
the chemical composition of the plasma membrane.
3.
Describe
the fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane.
4.
Describe
the functions of the cell membrane.
5.
Define
diffusion and give an example.
6.
Define
osmosis and osmotic pressure.
7.
Define
the terms isotonic, hypertonic, hypotonic, crenation, hemolysis, and
physiological saline.
8.
Define
facilitated diffusion, active transport, phagocytosis, and pinocytosis.
9.
What
are the structural and functional differences between smooth and rough
endoplasmic reticulum?
10.
Describe
the structure and functions of the ribosomes, mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum, cytoskeleton, centrioles, cilia, Golgi complex, lysosomes, and
peroxisomes.
11. Describe the structure and functions of the nucleus. Why is it
called a control center?
12. Describe the structure of DNA.
13.
Define transcription.
14.
Define a base triplet, a codon, and an anticodon.
15.
What are the different types of RNA? Describe the
role of each type of RNA in protein synthesis.
16.
Define translation.
17.
Summarize
the events that occur in transcription and translation.
Chapter 4
THE TISSUE LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
Tissue- is a group of cells specialized to perform specific
function(s).
Four types: epithelial, connective,
muscular, and nervous tissues.
EPITHELIAL TISSUE-
General Features- Epithelial tissue is avascular.
Cell junctions (Fig. 4-2,
page 109):
a.
Gap junctions
b.
Tight junction and adhesion belt
c.
Hemidesmosome
d.
Desmosome
CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE
will be discussed in the lab and will be tested in your lecture test.
Types- (1) based on the shape of the
cell (Table 4-1 page 111):
Squamous- thin and flat
Columnar- cylindrical
Cuboidal- cube-shaped
2) Based on the
number of layers (Table 4-1 page 111):
Simple epithelium- one layer in thickness.
Stratified epithelium- several layers of cells
Pseudostratified epithelium- single layer that appears to be several-layered.
Simple squamous epithelium
(Table 4-3a, page 112)- portions of the urinary tract,
respiratory surfaces of the lungs, lining of the body cavities and the inner
surfaces of the circulatory system.
Simple cuboidal epithelium (Table
4-4a, page 113)-
portions of the urinary tract, forms glandular epithelium that secretes enzymes
and buffers in the pancreas and salivary glands, and line kidney tubules.
Simple columnar epithelium (Table 4-5a,
page 115)- lines
most of the digestive tract and many excretory ducts.
Stratified squamous epithelium
(Table 4-3b, page 112)- surface of the skin, lining of the mouth.
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
(Table 4-5b, page 115)- trachea and portions of the male reproductive tract.
Glands- are derivatives of epithelial cells.
Two categories: Exocrine and endocrine
glands (page 114):
Exocrine glands- secretion through a duct that
leads to outside of a membrane.
Structural classification of
exocrine glands:
Unicellular exocrine
gland-
Multicellular exocrine
glands (Fig. 4-7, page 117)-
Functional classification of multicellular
exocrine glands (Fig.
4-6, page 116)-
1. Merocrine secretion- no loss of cell structures. Eg. Sweat glands.
2. Apocrine secretion- loss of cytoplasm and the secretory product.
Eg. Milk secretion.
3. Holocrine secretion- the cell becomes part of the secretion.
Eg. Sebaceous glands.
CONNECTIVE TISSUE- supports and protects the body.
General Features-Three basic components are
specialized cells, extracellular proteins (fibers) and ground substance. The fibers and ground
substance are collectively called the matrix
(page 118).
Classification:
1. Connective tissue proper (Fig. 4-8, page 119):
Types of cells-
fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, adipocytes and plasma cells.
Types of connective tissue fibers-
Collagen
fibers-
Reticular
fibers-
Elastic
fibers-
Ground substance-
Subtypes of Connective tissue
proper:
Loose connective (areolar) tissue (Fig.
4-8, page 119)-
Adipose tissue (Fig. 4-10a, page 122)-
Reticular tissue (Fig. 4-10b, page
122):
Dense connective tissue-Two types:
a. Dense regular connective tissue eg. Tendons (Fig. 4-11a, page 124),
elastic tissue (Fig. 4-11c, page 124, and ligaments.
b. Dense irregular connective tissue: eg. Dermis part of the skin (Fig.
4-11b, page 124).
2. Supporting Connective Tissue
Cartilage- hard connective tissue consists of
chondrocytes.
Provides support for soft tissues
and is the precursor of bone in the fetus (pages 125-128).
Perichondrium: is the covering of the cartilage.
Chondroitin sulfate:
The three types of cartilage are
Hyaline cartilage (gristle) (Fig.
4-14a, page 127)-
Elastic cartilage (Fig. 4-14b, page 127)-
Fibrocartilage (Fig. 4-14c, page 127)-
Bone tissue: will be discussed in
Unit 2
3. Fluid Connective Tissue
Blood and Lymph will be discussed in
AP2.
Membranes (Fig. 4-16, Page 130)-
1.
Mucous membrane- lines cavities that communicate
with exterior.
2.
Serous membrane- lines sealed internal cavities: Parietal and Visceral.
3.
Cutaneous membrane-
4.
Synovial membrane- lines joint cavities.
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1.
Define
a tissue.
2.
Name
the four tissue types. Give their general functions and locations.
3.
What
are the different types of junctions? How are they important?
4.
List
several characteristics that typify epithelial tissue. Describe the criteria
used to classify epithelia structurally.
5.
Name
and describe the various types of epithelia, indicate their main function(s)
and location(s).
6.
What
are the three types of epithelial tissue a. based on the shape; b. based on the
number of layers.
7.
What
is a gland? Distinguish between endocrine and exocrine glands.
8.
Describe
the classification of exocrine glands based on their functions and give one
example of each type.
9.
Describe
common characteristics of connective tissue.
10.
Describe
the types of connective tissue found in the body and their functions.
11.
Define
matrix, ground substance, hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, collagen fiber,
elastic fiber, reticular fiber, fibroblast, adipocyte, chondrocyte, and lacuna.
12.
What
is a membrane? What are the different membranes and what is the unique purpose
of each one?
Chapter 5
THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Includes
skin (integument) and its exocrine glands, hair, and nails.
THE SKIN
Functions- protection, prevention of
dehydration, maintenance of body temperature, excretion of wastes, reception of
stimuli, storage of nutrients, and vitamin D synthesis.
Structure: two main layers: outer epidermis and inner dermis (Fig. 5.1, page 154).
Epidermis-
avascular. Consists of four or five layers (Fig. 5-2, page 155).
1. Stratum germinativum-
innermost layer. Immediately adjacent to the dermis, consists of cells (stem
cells or keratinocytes and melanocytes) that are constantly undergoing cell
division.
2. Stratum spinosum- about
ten rows of cells (keratinocytes and Langerhans cells).
3. Stratum granulosum- cells
begin to die due to the accumulation of keratin precursor molecules
(keratohyalin). Three to 5 layers.
4. Stratum lucidum- consists
of keratinized cells; present in the palm and sole. Three to 5 layers. Cells
with keratohyalin.
5. Stratum corneum- outer
most layers, consists of flattened keratinized cells (15-30 layers).
SKIN COLOR (pages 158-159)-
Melanin- a
brown pigment produced by the melanocytes
in the basal layer of the epidermis gives brown
color.
Dermis (pages
161-163)- consists of connective tissue, blood vessels and nerves.
Papillary layer- upper dermal region; consists of
loose connective tissue; uneven with projections (epidermal ridges). Supports
upper epidermis.
Reticular layer- contains dense irregular
connective tissue along with the blood vessels, nerves, sweat and sebaceous
glands.
Subcutaneous layer or Hypodermis (pages 163-164)- consists of loose connective tissue,
including adipose tissue. Stabilizes the skin’s position against underlying organs
and tissues.
HAIR (Pili)-
Structure- consists of a root and a shaft.
Hair cell production involves cell specialization to form a soft core, or
medulla, surrounded by a cortex (Fig. 5-9, page 165).
Muscle- arrector pili: goosebumps.
Hair Growth-
SKIN GLANDS
1.
SEBACEOUS
(OIL) GLANDS- secretes sebum (oil). Sebum functions to oil the hair, lubricates
the surface of the skin, and form an oily film that retards water loss from the
body surface (Fig. 5-10, page 167).
2.
SWEAT
(SUDORIFEROUS) GLANDS- help regulate body temperature. In this process, they
excrete excess water and small amounts of nitrogenous wastes (Fig. 5-11, page
168). Two types of sweat glands:
Merocrine (Eccrine) sweat glands- distributed all over the body;
secretion is mainly water, some salts and a trace of urea and uric acid.
Apocrine sweat glands- found in the axillary and genital
areas; secretion is thick, sticky and odorous.
3. CERUMINOUS GLANDS-
NAILS- are a modification of the
horny epidermal cells and consist mainly of compressed, tough keratin (Fig.
5-12, page 169).
INJURY AND REPAIR:
Skin exhibits inflammation and
regeneration responses to injury. The process includes formation of a scab and
granulation tissue (Fig. 5-13, pages 170-171).
Burns- First-degree burns, Second-degree
(partial thickness) burns and Third degree (full-thickness) burns.
Rule of nines (Fig. 5-14, page 172)- method of estimating
the percentage of surface area affected by burns.
Skin Cancer (page 160)- basal cell carcinoma
squamous cell carcinoma and
malignant melanoma.
Some interesting facts:
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Name the organ and its accessory
structures in the integumentary system.
2. List the functions of the skin.
3. What is the function of vitamin D?
4. List all the characteristic features
of the epidermis.
5. Name the different cell layers in
the epidermis starting with the innermost cell layer.
6. What is the difference between thin
and thick skin?
7. Name the different types of cells in
the epidermis. What are their functions?
8. What is the significance of melanin
in the body?
9. Where do you find papillary layer of
the dermis? What is the significance of this layer?
10. List all the structures that are
found in the dermis.
11. What is the significance of
subcutaneous layer?
12. What is the permanent structure in
the dermis that produces hair? Describe its structure.
13. What is the purpose of hair papilla?
14. How does the hair grow?
15. What are sebaceous glands? What is
the importance of these glands in the body?
16. What are the two types of sweat
glands? What are some of the differences between them?
17. What are ceruminous glands? Where do
you find them? How are they important?
18. What are the three types of burns?
Which is the most destructive type? How would you treat these patients?
19.
What
are the three types of skin cancers? What type of cells do they affect?
Chapter 6
OSSEOUS TISSUE AND BONE STRUCTURE
Functions- support, protection, movement, blood
cell formation, storage and release of minerals and lipids (page 180).
Types of bones based on the shape- long bones, short bones, flat bones,
irregular bones, and sesamoid bones (Fig. 6-1, page 181).
Bone markings: projections, processes, depressions and openings (Table
6-1, page 182)
Bone Structure- (Fig. 6-2a, page 183).
Bone Parts- Diaphysis, epiphysis,
and metaphysis.
Bone Coverings-
1. Periosteum- is the outer
covering of the bone.
2. Endosteum- is the internal
surface of the bone.
Marrow Cavity- is the space in the
center of a long bone that is filled with bone marrow.
Yellow or red marrow-
Histology of Bone tissue-
Bone Cells- osteoprogenitor (stem) cells,
osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts (Fig. 6-3, page 184).
Bone Matrix- is made of hydroxyapatite crystals
(calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate, and calcium hydroxide) and collagen
fibers.
Depending on the arrangement of the bone matrix, bone can be
divided into:
Spongy bone-
the matrix is in the form of struts or plates called trabeculae.
Compact bone- Haversian system or osteon- Haversian canal, lamellae,
lacunae, canaliculi, osteocytes, and canals of Volkmann or perforating canals.
Ossification-
Formation of bone.
1.
Intramembranous Ossification- occurs within the embryonic tissue
(Fig. 6-11, page 192). Mesenchymal cells
cluster → differentiate into osteoblasts (ossification center) →
spicules (spongy bone) → trap blood vessels → add more matrix
→ remodeling → compact bone. Eg. Skull bones, mandible, and
clavicle.
2.
Endochondral ossification- cartilage → bone (Fig. 6-9, page
190).
Hypertrophy of chondrocytes near the center of the cartilage
→ chondrocytes die and disintegrate → matrix begins to calcify
→ blood vessels into the perichondrium → perichondrium becomes
periosteum → osteoblasts → replace cartilagenous matrix with bony
matrix → spongy bone → compact bone. Eg. Limb bones.
Bone Growth-
Growth in length-
Epiphyseal plate: (pages 189-190).
Chondrocytes → cartilage
formation (↑ length). Onset of puberty: → osteoblast activity
→ bone formation extends towards the epiphyseal plate → cartilage
becomes bone. Epiphyseal plate → epiphyseal line.
Growth in thickness- occurs by appositional growth (Fig. 6.9, page 173).
Bone formation → ridge formed → ridges fuse
trapping the blood vessel → bone
deposition → osteon.
Bone Remodeling (page 194):
Bone and calcium homeostasis- two hormones help regulate blood
calcium concentrations (Fig. 6-14, page 197):
1.
Parathyroid hormone:
2.
Calcitonin:
Fracture- is a broken bone. Depending on the
nature and extent, the fracture can be classified as transverse, spiral,
greenstick, Colles', comminuted, Pott’s, compression fracture (Fig. 6.16, page 200).
Fracture repair- bleeding → clot. Osteocytes die around the cut area.
Cells of endosteum and periosteum divide and cells migrate to fracture zone.
Soft callus → hard callus.
Inside the callus osteoblasts deposit spongy bone. Fusion of
external and internal callus → continuous bone (Fig. 6-15, page 199)
Bone diseases (page 199)-
Osteopenia- inadequate ossification →
thin and weak bones →
Osteoporosis (porous bone; page 201).
Rickets/Osteomalacia-
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the functions of bone?
2. How bones are grouped based on their
shape? Give one example of each type of bone.
3. What is a sesamoid bone?
4. Name the parts of a long bone and
discuss their functions.
5. What are the two coverings of the
bone? Describe their structures, locations, and their functions.
6. Name the different types of bone
cells and their functions.
7. What is bone matrix made of? How is
it arranged in the two types of bones?
8. What are the differences between the
spongy and compact bone?
9. Describe Haversian system.
10. What is ossification? What are the
two types of ossification?
11. Describe a. Intramembranous ossification
b. Endochondral ossification.
12. How does bone increase in length?
13. What is the role of epiphyseal plate
in children?
13. How
does bone increase its thickness? Or describe appositional growth.
14. What is
bone remodeling? How does stress affect bone remodeling?
15. What is a fracture? Define
transverse, spiral, greenstick, Pott’s, Colles' and comminuted fractures.
16. Describe how a fracture is repaired.
17. What are the two hormones that are
important in regulating blood calcium ion concentration? How do they control
normal concentrations of calcium in the blood (mechanism of control)?
18. Write a short note on osteoporosis.
19. What is rickets? What is it called
in adults?
Chapter 7
THE AXIAL SKELETON
Include bones that are present around the body's center
(axis). Three parts: the skull, the vertebral column and the bony thorax (Fig.
7-1a,b, pages 206-207).
SKULL- consists of 22 bones. Composed of
two sets of bones: Cranium and facial skeleton (Fig. 7-2,3,4 pages 208-211).
Sutures- are immovable joints between the
bones of the skull (page 208).
1. Sagittal suture- midline articulation point of the two parietals.
2. Squamous suture- point of articulation of temporal with parietal.
3. Coronal suture-
point of articulation of parietals with frontal.
4. Lambdoid suture- site of articulation of occipital and parietals.
Fontanels- soft spots in the infant’s skull
(anterior, occipital, sphenoidal and mastoid) (Fig. 7-15, page 2-23).
Individual bones will be discussed in the lab and will be in
your lecture exam.
THE CRANIUM- is composed of eight bones.
Frontal- anterior part of the cranium. Forms forehead and superior part of the
orbit Fig. 7-6a,b page 213).
Parietal- posterior to the frontal bone
forming sides of cranium (Fig. 7-5b page 213).
Temporal (Fig. 7-7a,b page 214)- two major parts:
Squamous portion adjoins the parietals.
Petrous portion forms the lateral inferior aspect
of the skull.
Occipital- most posterior bone of cranium
forms floor and back wall (Fig. 7-5a page 212).
Sphenoid- bat-shaped bone forms the anterior plateau of the middle cranial
cavity across the width of the skull (Fig. 7-8a,b, page 215).
Ethmoid- irregularly shaped bone anterior
to the sphenoid (Fig. 7.9a,b, page 216).
FACIAL BONES- fourteen bones. The mandible and vomer are single bones.
All other facial bones are paired.
Nasal bones- small rectangular bones forming the upper part of the
bridge of the nose (7-11, page 218).
Zygomatic- lateral to the maxilla; a prominent portion of the face
(cheekbone) and forms part of the lateral orbit (Fig. 7-11, page 218).
Mandible- lower jawbone. Articulates with temporal bones. The only
freely movable joints of the skull. Alveolar processes (Fig. 7-12a,b, page 219).
Temporomandibular
Joint syndrome (TMJ syndrome)- painful condition
resulting from misalignment of the mandible at the temporomandibular joint
(page 220).
Lacrimal- small bones forming a part of the medial orbit walls between the
maxilla and the ethmoid (Fig. 7-11, page 218).
Maxillae- form the upper jawbone and part of the orbits. All facial bones except
mandible join maxillae. Alveolar processes maxillary sinuses (Fig. 7-10a,b,
page 217).
Cleft palate-
Inferior nasal conchae- thin curved bones protruding from the lateral walls
of the nasal cavity (Fig. 7-11, page 218).
Vomer- irregularly shaped bone in median plane of nasal
cavity; forms the posterior and inferior nasal septum (Fig. 7-11, page 218).
Paranasal Sinuses- frontal, sphenoidal, ethmoidal and
maxillary (page 222).
Sinusitis-
Orbits (Fig. 7.13, page 220)-
Hyoid bone- is the only bone of the skeleton that does not articulate
with another bone (Fig. 7.12c, page 219).
THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN- consists of 26 vertebrae. There are 7
cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 1 sacrum, and 1 coccyx. The last two are
formed by the fusion of several individual vertebrae (Fig. 7-16, page 224).
Spinal curvature (Fig. 7-16, page 224)- Two primary curves (thoracic and sacral) and two secondary curves (cervical and lumbar).
Abnormal curves of the vertebral column:
Kyphosis- ‘humpback’- exaggerated thoracic curvature.
Lordosis-
‘swayback’- exaggerated lumbar curvature.
Scoliosis- abnormal
lateral curvature.
Intervertebral discs- the vertebrae are separated by pads of fibrocartilage that
cushions the vertebrae.
Anulus fibrosus and nucleus pulposus-
Herniated (slipped)
disc (Fig. 9-8, page
270)-
Vertebral Anatomy- includes body, neural or vertebral arch, laminae,
pedicles, vertebral foramen, spinous process, transverse processes, superior
and inferior articular processes, intervertebral foramen (Fig. 7-17, page 225).
Spina bifida- vertebral laminae fail to fuse
during development. Neural arch is incomplete and membranes or meninges bulge
outward (page 235).
Cervical vertebrae- small, presence of transverse foramen, split (bifid)
spinous process, and large vertebral canal (Fig. 7-18a-c, page 227).
Atlas- no
body, makes you say ‘yes’ (Fig. 7-18d, page 227).
Axis-
presence of dens. Makes you say ‘no’ (Fig. 7-18d, page 227).
Thoracic vertebrae- articulate with the ribs. Presence of superior and
inferior facets or demifacets, and extended transverse processes (Fig. 7-19,
page 229).
Lumbar vertebrae- large and massive (Fig. 7-20, page
230).
Compare cervical, thoracic and
lumbar vertebrae
(Table 7-2, page 228)-
Sacrum- formed by the fusion of 5 sacral
vertebrae (Fig. 7-21, page 231).
Coccyx- formed by the fusion of 3-5 bones(Fig.
7-21, page 231).
THORACIC SKELETON- is composed of the sternum (breastbone),
costal cartilages, ribs (12 pairs), and thoracic vertebrae (Fig. 7-22, page 232).
The Ribs (Fig. 7-23, page 233)-
True ribs or
vertebrosternal ribs (1-7).
False ribs: vertebrochondral (8-10) and
floating (vertebral) ribs (11-12).
Costal cartilages-
The Sternum (breastbone)- manubrium, jugular notch, body and xiphoid process
(Fig. 7-22a, page 232).
Interesting facts
·
Humans
and giraffes both have seven cervical vertebrae! They are much longer in the
giraffe.
·
Smallest
bone in the body is stapes, which measures approximately 2.5mm.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define axial skeleton. What are the
three main groups of bones that make up axial skeleton.
2. How many bones make up the skull?
What are the two main groups of skull bones?
3. What are sutures? Where do you find
a. Sagittal suture, b. Squamosal suture,
c. Coronal suture, and d. Lambdoid
suture.
4. What are fontanels? How are they
important? Name any two fontanels.
5. What are the different bones that
make up the cranium?
6. Name where these processes,
condyles, structures, or foramen are found.
Mastoid process, styloid process,
mandibular fossa, external acoustic meatus and internal acoustic meatus,
occipital condyles, foramen magnum, sella turcica, optic foramen, foramen
ovale, cribriform plates, crista galli, jugular foramen, and greater and lesser
wings.
7.
Name
all the facial bones.
8.
Which
bone is also called as the cheekbone?
9.
Which
bone is the only movable bone in the skull?
10.
What
are alveolar processes? Where do you find these?
11.
What
is TMJ syndrome?
12.
What
are the smallest skull bones?
13.
All
the bones of the facial skeleton are attached to this bone except mandible.
Which bone is this?
14.
What
is cleft palate?
15.
Two
facial bones form the roof of the mouth. Which ones are those?
16.
What
are sinuses? Name them. How are they important in the skull? Which is the
largest sinus?
17.
Define
sinusitis.
18.
What
are orbits? Name all the skull bones that contribute to the structure of the
orbit.
19.
Name
the bone that is not attached to any other bone in the body. Where do you find
this bone?
20.
How
many bones make up the vertebral column? What are those?
21.
What
are the two primary and two secondary curves?
22.
Define
kyphosis, lordosis, and scoliosis.
23.
What
are intervertebral discs? Describe the structure and functions of the
intervertebral disc.
24.
What
is herniated or slipped disc?
25.
Describe
the structure of a typical vertebra.
26.
What
is spina bifida?
27.
What
are the characteristic features of cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae?
28.
What
is the first cervical vertebra called? What are the special features of this
vertebra?
29.
What
is the second cervical vertebra called? What are its special features?
30.
Where
do you find these structures: transverse foramen, bifid spinous process,
facets, or demifacets, and dens.
31.
How
many vertebrae are fused together to form the sacrum?
32.
What
is the other name for the tailbone?
33.
Name
the components of the thoracic skeleton.
34.
How
many pairs of ribs are there? Which vertebrae are they attached to in the
vertebral column? How do you classify ribs?
35.
What
is the other name for the breastbone? What are the three parts of this bone?
36.
Where
do you find the (jugular) suprasternal notch?
Chapter 8
THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON
Consists of
126 bones that include the upper and lower limbs, and the pectoral and pelvic
girdle.
Pectoral (shoulder)
girdle- two
bones (Fig. 8-2, page 241):
The Clavicle or collarbone- ‘S’ shaped with sternal and
acromial ends (Fig. 8-2a, page 241).
The Scapula- "wings" of humans (Fig.
8-2b, page 241).
Upper limb-
Arm- consists of humerus (Fig. 8-4,
page 242).
Forearm- consists of two bones: radius (lateral) and ulna
(medial) (Fig. 8-5, page 243).
Carpal bones (wrist bones)- eight carpal bones make up the wrist (Fig. 8-6, page 244).
Carpal tunnel
syndrome-
Hand (Fig. 8-6, page 244)-
a. Palm-
Metacarpal bones: 5
b.
Digits- Phalanges: 14
Pelvic (hip) girdle- composed of two hip bones (coxae).
Each coxal bone is derived from the fusion of three separate bones designated
as the ilium, ischium, and pubis (Fig.
8-7, page 246).
Acetabulum-
Pelvis- the two hip bones together with the sacrum and coccyx form the pelvis
(Fig. 8-8, 247).
Comparison of male and female pelves
(Fig. 8-10, page 248)-
The
Femur or thighbone- largest bone in the body (Fig. 8-11, page 250).
Patella or kneecap (Fig. 8-12, page 250)-
Leg- consists of two bones, tibia (shin bone, medial) and fibula (lateral)
(Fig. 8-13, page 251).
Ankle(Fig. 8-14, page 252)- seven tarsal bones make up the ankle.
Foot- metatarsal bones- 5 and phalanges-
14
Arches of the foot: longitudinal and transverse (Fig. 8.14b, page 252).
Flat foot-
no arches (page 253).
Club foot- inherited developmental
abnormality (page 253).
REVIEW QUESTIONS
26. Define flat foot.
Chapter 9
ARTICULATIONS
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS
(Table 9-1, page 259): Synarthrosis, Amphiarthrosis and Diathrosis.
Synarthrosis (Table 9.2, page 260):
1. Suture- between skull bones.
2. Gomphosis-
fibrous connection between the tooth and its socket (peg-in-socket).
3. Synchondrosis-
cartilage between bones. Eg. ribs and sternum.
4. Synostosis-
Eg. Epiphyseal plate.
Amphiarthrosis:
Syndesmosis- ligament connects bones. Eg. Tibia
and fibula and radius and ulna.
Symphysis- bones separated by fibrocartilage.
Eg. Pubic symphysis and intervertebral discs.
Diarthrosis or synovial joints:
Structure- consists of articular capsule, synovial membrane, synovial
fluid, articular cartilage, fibrocartilage pads (menisci, fat pads), accessory
ligaments (extracapsular or intracapsular), and bursae (Fig. 9.1, page 261).
Bursitis (page 262)-
Types of movements
possible at synovial joint (Fig. 9-2, page 263):
Linear: gliding (page 264)
Angular: flexion, extension, hyperextension, adduction and
abduction (Fig. 9-3a-c, page 265)
Circumduction (Fig. 9-3d, page 265)
Rotation (Fig. 9-4, page 266)
Monoaxial, biaxial, and triaxial: page 264
Special Movements- Elevation/ depression,
protraction/ retraction, inversion/eversion,
dorsiflexion/plantar flexion (Fig. 9-5, page 267).
A functional classification of Synovial Joints (Fig. 9-6, page 268)-
Planar (gliding)
joints (Fig. 9.4a
page 249)- Flat surfaces. Gliding movement. Biaxial. Eg. Between thoracic
vertebrae and ribs, clavicle and scapula, between carpals and between tarsals.
Hinge joints (Fig. 9.4b, page 249)- Concave
surface on one bone and convex on the other. Monoaxial (uniaxial), angular
movement. Flexion, extension, and
hyperextension. Eg. The elbow or knee.
Pivot joints (Fig. 9.4c, page 249)- rotation (medial or lateral), monoaxial;
the proximal end of radius and ulna that turns palm inwards (pronation) or outwards (supination). Eg Between the atlas and
axis.
Ellipsoidal or Condyloid
joint (Fig. 9.4d,
page 249)- oval end sits within a depression. Biaxial, angular movement: flexion,
extension, adduction and abduction.
Eg between phalanges and metacarpals, between radius and carpals.
Saddle joints (Fig. 9.4e, page 249)- Concave end
on one axis and convex on the other. Gliding and angular motion. Biaxial. Opposition. Eg. Base of thumb
(trapezius and metacarpal 1).
Ball-and-socket joints
(Fig. 9.4f, page
249)- Round head rests within a cup-shaped depression. Multiaxial (triaxial).
Movements include flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, and rotation. Eg.
Joints of the shoulders and hips.
Joint Disorders-
Subluxation/Luxation- page 262
Arthritis- damage to articular cartilage
(page 278).
·
Osteorthritis or degenerative
arthritis-
·
Rheumatoid arthritis-
·
Gouty arthritis-
Interesting facts about bones:
· bone fractured
most often- clavicle
· bone fractured
the least- scapula
· most mobile
joint- shoulder
· most immobile
joint- sutures of skull
· strongest joint- hip joint
· longest bone- femur
· smallest bone-
stapes
· most prominent
vertebra- 7th cervical
· there are
usually 12 pairs of ribs (same in men and women)
· one in 20 people
has an extra rib
· your arm span is
usually equal to your height
· you shrink
approximately 12.7 mm during the day due to compression of the intervertebral
discs
· shiny white
enamel on the teeth is the hardest material in the body.
·
Babies are born without bony kneecaps; they don’t ossify
until the child reaches 2-6 years of age
·
There are more than 230 moveable and semi-moveable joints
in the body.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
What
are articulations?
2.
Define
synarthroses, amphiarthroses and diarthroses.
3.
What
are the subtypes of synarthrosis? Give at least one example of each type.
4.
What
are the subtypes of amphiarthrosis? Give at least one example of each type.
5.
Define
synovial joint.
6.
Describe
the structure of a simple synovial joint. List the functions of each structure
in the synovial joint.
7.
What
additional structures do you find in a complex synovial joint? What are the
functions of those structures?
8.
Define
bursitis.
9.
Define
planar, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, and ball-and-socket joints with at
least one example of each type.
10.
Define
opposition, pronation, supination, flexion, extension, adduction, abduction,
rotation, plantarflexion, dorsiflexion, protraction, and retraction.
11.
Compare
monoaxial, biaxial, and triaxial joints.
12.
Compare
hip and shoulder joints.
13.
Which
is the largest and the most complex joint in the body? Name the bones and the
types of joints you find in the knee joint.
14.
Write
short notes on osteorthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and gouty arthritis.
Chapter 10
MUSCLE TISSUE
Functions(page 284):
Three types: Skeletal
muscle- voluntary; striated.
Cardiac
muscle- involuntary; striated.
Smooth
muscle- involuntary; lack striations.
SKELETAL MUSCLE-
Organization of
connective tissues-
epimysium, perimysium, and endomysium (Fig. 10-1, page 285).
Fascicle, Tendon, Aponeurosis-
Microanatomy of skeletal muscle
fibers- sarcolemma,
sarcoplasm, sarcoplasmic reticulum, and transverse tubules or T tubules, and
myofibrils (Fig. 10-2 page 286 and Fig. 10-3, page 287).
Myofibrils are made up of
myofilaments: thin (contain actin) and thick (contain myosin).
Sarcomere and its organization- Myofilaments are organized in repeating
functional units called sarcomeres. Locate Z lines, I band, A band, H zone and
M line in a sarcomere (Fig. 10-4 and 10-5, pages 288-289).
Structure of thick and thin filaments (Fig. 10.7, page 291)-
Thick filament: Myosin- each head with two binding sites
and a tail.
Thin filament- Actin or F-actin: components of thin filaments are
actin, tropomyosin, and troponin.
Cross-bridges- myosin head (with its active site) connects myosin with
actin forming a cross-bridge.
Sliding Filament Mechanism- contraction ¯ the distance between adjacent Z
lines because thin filaments slide over and between thick filaments (Fig. 10-8,
page 292).
MUSCLE CONTRACTION
Neuromuscular junction (myoneuronal junction or motor end
plate)- Synaptic cleft, synaptic knob, acetylcholine (neuro-transmitter) (Fig.
10-10, page 294).
·
Nerve
stimulation
·
Release
of neurotransmitter (acetylcholine [ACh]) from the neuron (synaptic knob) to
the synaptic cleft
·
Binding
of ACh to its receptor on the sarcolemma
·
action
potential (Fig. 10-12, pages 296-297)
·
Spreads
to T- tubules
·
Release
of Ca++ from sarcoplasmic reticulum
·
Ca++
binds to troponin
·
Displacement
of tropomyosin exposing the binding site on actin
·
Myosin
head binds to actin
·
Power
stroke (bending of cross-bridge) pulling actin towards the center of the
sarcomere (shortening or contraction)
·
New
ATP binds to myosin head
·
Cross-bridge
detachment
·
ATP
® ADP
MUSCLE RELAXATION (Fig. 10-13, pages 298-299)-
·
Decreased
neuronal activity
·
No
action potential
·
Sarcoplasmic
reticulum reabsorbs Ca++
·
Tropomyosin
assumes a position that blocks the binding site on actin
·
No
cross-bridge formation or no contraction
Acetylcholinesterase- is an enzyme that breaks down
acetylcholine.
Myasthenia gravis- loss of ACh receptors.
Rigor Mortis (page 298)-
Motor unit (Fig. 10.17, page 305)-
CONTROL OF MUSCLE TENSION-
Length-tension relationship in the
skeletal muscle
(Fig. 10-14, page 301):
Twitch contraction (Fig. 10-15, page 302)-
Tetanus (Fig. 10-16, page 303)-
Isotonic and Isometric contractions (Fig. 10-18, page 307)-
Muscle tone- page 305
Energy for muscle
contraction- ATP,
creatine phosphate (CP), metabolism of glucose and fatty acids(page 309).
Muscle fatigue (page 310)-
Muscle hypertrophy and atrophy-
SMOOTH MUSCLE TISSUE-
Microscopic anatomy of smooth muscle- presence of intermediate filaments
and dense bodies (Fig. 10-17, page 305).
Physiology of smooth muscle: Contraction: Ca++ +
calmodulin stimulates enzyme (myosin light chain kinase) activity which converts
ATP to ADP ® phosphorylation of myosin head ®
binding to actin ® contraction (page 319).
Types of Smooth muscle fibers (page 320):
Visceral (single unit) muscle
tissue-
Multiunit muscle tissue-
REVIEW QUESTIONS
a. What initiates muscle contraction process (discuss the
importance of neuromuscular junction).
b. The role of Ca++ in
muscle contraction
c. The role of ATP
d. The role of acetylcholinesterase
(relaxation)
Chapter 11
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Arrangement of fascicles (Fig. 11-1, page 327)-
Parallel, convergent, pennate (unipennate, bipennate or
multipennate), and circular
arrangements.
Origin and Insertion (page 330)-
Actions (page 331)-
Agonists and antagonists-
Synergists-
Prime mover-
Naming of muscles (Table 11-1, page 332)-
****A list
of muscles will be assigned in the lab to identify their locations and
functions which will be tested in the lab exam.
Answer the
review questions to cover the material for the lecture exam ****
Interesting facts about muscles:
· Muscle means
“little mouse”
· There are about
650 voluntary (skeletal) muscles in the body. About 40% of your body weight is
muscles.
· Muscles cannot push, they can only pull.
· There are 20
muscles located in the hand.
· There are more
than 30 facial muscles that are responsible for facial expression.
· Eye muscles are
the busiest muscles in the body. They move approximately 100,000 times per day.
· smallest muscle-
stapedius
· Largest muscle-
gluteus maximus
· Strongest
muscle =
masseter
· smallest motor
unit (3 muscle cells) is in external eye muscle
· most active
muscle =
external eye muscle
· greatest source
of body heat = contraction of skeletal muscles
· all body muscles
pulling in one direction would develop 25 tons of force
·
banging your head against a wall uses 150 calories an hour
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. Define origin and insertion.
2. Define agonistic and antagonistic
muscles.
3. Define synergists.
4. Define prime mover.
5. What are some of the arrangement of
muscles? Give an example of each type.
6. How are skeletal muscles named?
7. Give the origins and insertion of
sternocleidomastoid muscle.
8. Facial expression is possible
because of what reason?
9. Where do you find flexors and
extensors, in general, in the arm?
10. Most of the muscles in the back
support one bone. Which bone is that and why?
11. Name some of the muscles that are
important in normal respiration.
12. Why are abdominal muscles positioned
in different directions?
13. What is linea alba?
14. Name quadriceps femoris muscles.
15. What are hamstring muscles? Why are
they called so?
Chapter 12
NERVOUS TISSUE
Two major divisions of the Nervous System:
1.
Central nervous system (CNS): includes brain and the
spinal cord
2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS): includes nerves.
Neurons or Nerve Cells-
Structure (Fig. 12-1, page 381)-
1. Cell body-
presence of Nissl substance (Nissl body).
2. Dendrites- generally conduct impulses toward the cell
body.
3. Axon- generally conducts impulses away from the cell body.
Axon hillock, axolemma, and synaptic knob.
Define: Nerve
Ganglion
Nucleus
Tract
Neuron Types (Fig. 12-3, page 383)- based on structure, neurons can be classified as
Anaxonic- no anatomical difference between
dendrites and axons. Found in the brain and special sense organs.
Unipolar- one main process. Found in the
sensory neurons of the PNS.
Bipolar- unmyelinated, two main processes
involved in sight, smell and hearing functions.
Multipolar- many cell processes. Most common
type. Eg. Motor neurons.
Based on the function, neurons are organized
into three groups (page 384):
Sensory or afferent
neuron:
Motor or efferent neuron:
Interneuron or
association neuron:
Neuroglia- can be grouped into glial cell
populations in the CNS and PNS.
Neuroglia of the CNS (Fig. 12-4, page 385)-
Astrocytes- form a structural framework;
maintenance of
interstitial environment; chemical balance.
Blood-brain barrier-
Oligodendrocytes- form myelin sheaths around the
axons
within the CNS.
Neurofibril node
or Nodes of Ranvier-
White
matter and gray matter-
Microglia- smallest glial cells
Ependymal cells- line the ventricles and the central canal.
Neuroglia of the PNS-
Schwann cells- form myelin sheaths around the
axons of the PNS (Fig. 12-5, page 388).
Multiple sclerosis-
Regeneration of neurons in the PNS (Fig. 12-6, page 389)-
Neurophysiology
Resting Membrane Potential (Fig. 12-8 pages 392-393)-
Membrane channels
a. Passive or Leak channels and
b. Active or Gated channels(Fig. 12-10, page 395)-
Two types of gated channels: 1. Chemically-regulated
2.
Voltage-regulated
Graded potentials: Depolarization,
hyperpolarization, and repolarization (Fig. 12-11, page 397 and Fig. 12-12,
page 398).
Action potential or nerve impulse (Fig. 12.11, page 399, 12.12, page
401)-
Stimulus → depolarization to threshold → opening
of voltage-regulated Na+ channels → rapid depolarization →
Na+ channels close and K+ channels open →
repolarization → Na+/K+ pump reinstates the
original membrane potential.
All-or-none principle (page 398)- amplitude/frequency:
Refractory periods (page 400): absolute and relative.
Conduction (propagation) of nerve
impulses-
a. Unmyelinated- continuous conduction (Fig. 12-14, page 401)-
b. Myelinated: Saltatory
conduction (Fig. 12-15, page 403)-
Speed of nerve impulse propagation-
Type A
fibers- myelinated: 5 -20µm; 300 mph.
Type
B fibers- myelinated: 2 - 4 µm; 32 mph.
Type
C fibers- unmyelinated: < 2 µm; 2 mph.
Synaptic communication- Electrical or chemical.
Electrical synapses- gap junctions.
Chemical synapses- presynaptic, postsynaptic,
synaptic cleft, synaptic knob (Fig. 12.16, page 406).
Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)- is the depolarization that is produced in response to a neurotransmitter
(page 412).
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)- is the hyperpolarization that is produced in response to a
neurotransmitter (page 412).
Summation- Temporal summation
and Spatial summation (Fig. 12.18,
page 413).
·
A
nerve cell can transmit 1,000 nerve impulses each second.
Chapter 13
THE SPINAL CORD AND
SPINAL NERVES
PROTECTION AND COVERINGS
Spinal meninges or covering of the spinal cord- provide physical stability and
shock absorption (Fig. 13-3, page 425).
Three meningeal layers: outer dura mater, middle arachnoid
and inner pia mater.
Epidural space, Subdural space and
Subarachnoid space.
Meningitis-
Gross anatomy of the spinal cord (Fig. 13-2, page 424)-
Two enlargements:
Cervical- supplies nerves to the shoulder
girdle and arms.
Lumbar- supplies nerves to structures of
the pelvis and legs.
Conus medullaris-
Filum terminale-
Cauda equina-
Dorsal (posterior) root ganglion- contains the cell bodies of sensory neurons.
Dorsal (posterior) roots- contains the axons of sensory neurons.
Ventral roots-
contains the axons of motor neurons.
Anterior median fissure & posterior
median sulcus-
Spinal tap-
Sectional Anatomy of the spinal cord (Fig. 13-5, page 428)-
This section will be discussed in the lab and will be tested in the
lecture exam.
Central canal-
Gray matter- anterior, posterior and lateral
gray horns; gray commissures.
White matter- anterior, posterior and lateral
white horns.
SPINAL NERVES
This section will be discussed in the lab and will be tested in the
lecture exam.
Thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves. Mixed. Cervical C1-C8,
thoracic T1-T12, lumbar L1-L5, sacral S1-S5 and coccygeal Cx (Fig. 13-2, page
424).
Connective Tissue Covering of the Nerve- Epineurium, perineurium and
endoneurium (Fig. 13-6, page 429).
Peripheral distribution of spinal
nerves-
Each spinal nerve has two major rami (Fig. 13-7, page 430):
Dorsal Rami-
skin and muscles of the back.
Ventral Rami-
forms networks called plexuses.
Dermatome and Myotome (Fig. 13-8,
page 431)-
Cervical Plexus- C1-C5; phrenic nerve (Fig.13-10,
page 433).
Brachial Plexus- C5-T1; axillary, radial, ulnar, median, and
musculocutaneous nerves (Fig. 13-11, page 434).
Lumbar Plexus- L1-L4: Femoral and obturator nerves (Fig.13-12a-b, page
436).
Sacral Plexus- L4-S4; major nerve: sciatic (Fig. 13.12c-d, page 436).
Coccygeal plexus- S4, S5 and Cx; coccygeal nerve.
Thoracic nerves- T2-T12; intercostal nerves.
Spinal Reflexes- A reflex is an automatic,
involuntary motor response.
A reflex arc is a neural circuit of a single reflex (Fig. 13-14,
page 440).
Types of Reflexes:
1. Monosynaptic reflex:
Stretch reflex or Knee-jerk reflex (Fig. 13-15, page 4418).
Muscle spindles- the sensory receptors that monitor
the length of the muscle fiber (Fig. 13-16, page 442).
Slight stretching muscle spindles ®
sensory neuron to spinal cord ® muscle contraction.
2. Polysynaptic reflexes-
a. The Tendon reflex- monitors the tension produced
during a muscular contraction and prevents damage to the tendons by excessive
stresses (page 443).
Tendon organs- are the sensory structures that
monitor tension in collagen fibers of the tendon.
tension
activation of tendon organs ® muscle relaxation.
b. Withdrawal reflexes-
Flexor reflex (Fig. 13-17, page 444)-
Crossed extensor reflex (Fig. 13-18, page 445)-
Positive Babinski sign- fanning of the toes: infants.
Negative Babinski reflex or plantar reflex- normal adults.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Name the three meninges, their
locations, and their functions.
2. Where do you find epidural space,
subdural space, and subarachnoid space? What does the subarachnoid space
contain and how is it important? What does the epidural space contain and how
is it important?
3. What is meningitis?
4. What are the two enlargements of the
spinal cord? Why are they larger than the rest of the spinal cord?
5. Define conus medullaris, filum
terminale, and cauda equina.
6. Define dorsal root ganglia, dorsal
root, and ventral root.
7. Where do you find anterior median
fissure and posterior median sulcus?
8. What is spinal tap?
9. Define central canal. Where is it
found? What does it contain?
10. Where do you find gray matter in the
spinal cord? Name the three horns of the gray matter. Where do you find gray
commissures?
11. Where do you find white matter in
the spinal cord? Name the three horns of the white matter. Where do you find
white commissures?
12. Define reflex, and list the
components of a simple reflex arc.
13. Define monosynaptic and polysynaptic
reflex.
14. Describe stretch reflex.
15. What are muscle spindles? What is
their role in stretch reflex?
16. Describe tendon reflex.
17. What are tendon organs? What is
their role in the tendon reflex?
18. Describe flexor reflex. Give an
example.
19. Describe crossed extensor reflex.
Give an example.
20. Define positive Babinski sign. Where
do you normally find positive Babinski sign?
21. What is a nerve made of? What are
the three connective tissue coverings of the nerve?
22. Mention their exact locations.
23. How do you describe spinal nerves and why?
24. How many pairs of spinal nerves are
there? How do you group them?
25. Define dorsal and ventral rami.
26. What are plexuses?
27. Define cervical, brachial, and
lumbar, and sacral plexuses. Mention the important nerves formed from each of
these plexuses.
28. Define dermatome and myotome.
Chapter 14
THE BRAIN AND CRANIAL NERVES
Development of the Brain and Spinal Cord- the nervous system is formed from
the ectoderm of the embryonic tissue.
Neural plate → neural tube → superior and
inferior parts.
Inferior part → spinal cord (Table
14-1, page 454).
Superior part at the end of 3rd week: 3 swellings:
prosencephalon, mesencephalon and rhombencephalon.
Superior part at the end of 4th week: 5 regions: telencephalon
(cerebrum), diencephalon (hypothalamus, thalamus and epithalamus),
mesencephalon, metencephalon (pons and cerebellum) and myelencephalon (medulla
oblongata) (Fig. 14.1, page 453)
Brainstem- page 452
PROTECTION AND COVERINGS
The Cranial Meninges- Outer dura mater, the middle arachnoid and the inner pia
mater (Fig. 14-3, page 456).
VENTRICLES OF THE BRAIN- lateral ventricles →
interventricular foramen (foramen of Munro) → third ventricle →
mesencephalic aqueduct (cerebral aqueduct) → fourth ventricle →
central canal (Fig. 14-2, page 454).
The Choroid Plexus and Cerebrospinal
Fluid (CSF) Formation-
Choroid plexus- is formed by the capillaries and
specialized ependymal cells. It is a site of CSF production. CSF cushions and
protects the brain.
Arachnoid villi (arachnoid granulation)- reabsorbs CSF.
Circulation of CSF within the brain- Choroid plexus → ventricles →
spinal cord. Fourth ventricle → subarachnoid space → arachnoid
villi → drainage (Fig. 14-4, page 457).
Hydrocephalus-
TELENCEPHALON
CEREBRUM- largest part of the brain. Consists of cerebral cortex and cerebral
medulla (Fig. 14.-12, page 471).
Hemispheres- right and left hemispheres are
connected by corpus callosum.
Gyri- elevated ridges; Sulci- shallow depressions
Central sulcus- located between frontal and
parietal lobes.
Fissures- deeper grooves; longitudinal
fissure- separates two
hemispheres.
LOBES (Fig. 14-12, page 471)- Each hemisphere is divided into:
Frontal lobe- involved in the motor control, motivation, aggression and mood.
Parietal lobe- reception and evaluation of
sensory information.
Precentral gyrus- primary motor cortex.
Postcentral gyrus- primary somatosensory cortex.
Occipital lobe-
vision and for the coordination of eye
movements.
Temporal lobe- receives and evaluates olfactory
and auditory
input.
The Prefrontal cortex (page 476):