BIOLOGY DEPARTMENT, MSET DIVISION
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2 (BIO-208), SPRING 2008
|
Instructor |
Dr. Chaya
Gopalan |
|
Lecture |
SM-265 Section 508 9:00-9:50AM; Section 509 10:00-10:50AM
MWF |
|
Office |
SM-227 |
|
Phone |
(314)513-4892 |
|
e-mail |
cgopalan@stlcc.edu |
|
Web Page |
http://users.stlcc.edu/cgopalan |
|
Office Hours |
To be announced |
|
Text |
Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology, 7th ed.
by Martini |
|
Lab Manual |
Lab manuals and the atlas packaged with the text |
|
Credit |
Three Lectures and one Lab = 4 credit hours |
|
Prerequisite |
BIO-207 |
|
Course Objective |
This
course covers systemic study of the human body where endocrine, reproductive,
cardiovascular, respiratory, lymphatic, digestive, and urinary systems will
be discussed |
|
Purpose |
Anatomy and Physiology course is a prerequisite for
majority of the allied health professions |
|
Honors |
This course can be taken as an Honors course for those
with the GPA of at least 3.5. Students with 3.5 GPA and 12 credit hours of
work are also encouraged to join Phi Theta Kappa organization to benefit from
scholarship opportunities and more. We also have an active research lab in
the department studying the effect of certain sugars on diabetes. Meet with
the Instructor immediately if you are interested. Last day to sign up for
honors is March 7 |
|
Fieldtrip |
A field trip to the cadaver lab at the |
Grading Scale: Ninety-100% is an A, 80-89% is a
B, 70-79% is a C, 60-69% is a D, 59% and below is an F. Last day to withdraw
from regular semester course with a grade of "W" is Apr. 11. If a student is not successful
in obtaining a passing grade, an F will be automatically given. Final grade is
based upon the completion of the following assignments. Each assignment carries the specific weight
shown.
|
Number |
Weight |
Name |
|
1 |
15 |
Lecture Test 1 |
|
2 |
15 |
Lecture Test 2 |
|
3 |
15 |
Lecture Test 3 |
|
4 |
15 |
Lecture Test 4 |
|
5 |
15 |
Final Exam (Lecture Test 5) |
|
6 |
25 |
Lab Grade |
|
7 |
15 |
Quizzes |
There will be 5
unit tests. Fifth test is also considered as the final exam, which is not a
comprehensive exam. The total number of points earned towards quizzes, class
participation, and other assignments will be added up at the end of the semester.
If the weight of the extra credit is more than your lowest test grade, extra
credit grade will replace the lowest test grade or a missed test.
Accessories: The Science and
Attendance: Lectures will include materials
not found in the text, as well as elucidation of text materials. Thus,
attendance is very critical. Accurate records of attendance will be maintained.
Attendance for lecture tests is required during scheduled date and time. If a
student could not be present for a scheduled test due to sickness or an
unavoidable circumstance, contact the teacher as soon as possible. In such
case, the test will be given at a mutually agreeable time. If the student has
not contacted the teacher prior to the test and does not attend a scheduled
test and wants to take the test at a later time, a test will be given and
graded at 80% scale (20% points are cut).
In case class is cancelled, the test will be given at the next scheduled class
period. Short quizzes will be given regularly to check student progress and
encourage regular study habits. If you are late to class and if other students
are done with the quiz you will not be given the quiz at a later time. No make ups will be given for quizzes or
other in-class activities that would contribute towards extra credit except
in an extreme situation which is determined by the instructor. Students are
responsible to obtain handouts or important announcements shared when they were
absent either by contacting the instructor directly or through their
classmates.
Cell phone usage
such as receiving calls or making calls or for any other purpose is strictly
prohibited. It is strongly advised that the cell phone must not be brought to
the classroom. If one has to carry it, it must be muted. If the cell phone
distracts the class, 5 points will be cut from the extra credit section each
time.
Students are
required to successfully complete both lecture and laboratory portions of this
course in the same semester. One must earn a lab grade of at least 50% in order
to qualify for a passing grade in this course.
TENTATIVE SCHEDULE
|
WEEK |
DATE |
Lecture Assignment |
|
1 |
1/14-18 |
Chapter 18: The Endocrine System |
|
2 |
1/23-25 |
Chapter 18: The Endocrine System continued Chapter 28: The Reproductive Systems |
|
3 |
1/28-2/1 |
Chapter 28: The Reproductive Systems continued |
|
4 |
2/4 2/6 2/8 |
Chapter 29: Development LECTURE TEST 1 Chapter 19: The Blood |
|
5 |
2/11-2/15 |
Chapter 19: The Blood |
|
6 |
2/20-2/22 |
Chapter 20: The Heart |
|
7 |
2/25-29 |
Chapter 21: Blood vessels
|
|
8 |
3/3-3/5 3/7 |
Chapter 21: Blood vessels continued LECTURE TEST 2 |
|
9 |
3/17-3/21 |
Chapter
22: The Lymphatic System and Immunity |
|
10 |
3/24-28 |
Chapter 22: The Lymphatic System and Immunity Chapter 23: The Respiratory system |
|
11 |
3/31-4/2 4/4 |
Chapter 23: The Respiratory system continued LECTURE TEST 3 |
|
12 |
4/7-4/11 |
Chapter
24: The Digestive System |
|
13 |
4/14-4/18 |
Chapter
24: The Digestive System Chapter 25: Metabolism |
|
14 |
4/21 4/23 4/25 |
Chapter 25: Metabolism continued LECTURE TEST 4 Chapter
26: The Urinary System |
|
15 |
4/28-5/2 |
Chapter
26: The Urinary System continued |
|
16 |
5/5 |
Chapter
27: Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Homeostasis |
|
17 |
FINAL EXAM |
Date and time will be announced
|
Interesting facts
·
Adrenal glands produce the
greatest number of hormones.
·
Smallest endocrine gland is
parathyroid.
·
Largest endocrine gland is
thyroid.
·
Endocrine gland proportionately
largest at birth is thymus.
·
More babies are born between
3:00-4:00 a.m. than any other time of day.
·
Sperms travel ≈ 3.5
mm/minute for a distance of ≈ 10 cm to site of fertilization.
·
All the seminiferous tubules,
laid end to end measure about a mile.
·
The weight of a non-pregnant
adult uterus is 28g while that of a pregnant uterus is 1kg.
·
RBC travels 700 miles in 120 days.
·
If all the capillaries were
placed end to end, their combined length would exceed 25,000 miles, enough to
circle the world.
·
The human heart creates enough
pressure in the left ventricle to squirt blood 9.1 meters.
·
Capillaries are 1/30th the
diameter of a human hair.
·
We have more than 10 billion
capillaries.
·
It takes one minute for a blood
cell to travel through the entire body.
·
Human heart rate = 100,800
beats/day.
·
Fetal heart starts beating during
fourth week of pregnancy.
·
Lowest blood pressure is in the
right atrium.
·
Humans breathe 20 times per
minute, over 10 million times per year and about 700 million times in a
lifetime.
·
Lungs are the only organs that
float in water.
·
If you yelled for 8 years, 7
months and 6 days, you would have produced enough sound energy to heat one cup
of coffee.
·
A sneeze creates a force of air
moving nearly 160 km/h.
·
It is impossible to sneeze with
your eyes open.
·
One cigarette shortens your life
by 14 minutes
·
The digestive system is a
9-meter-long tube, open at both ends.
·
Every person has a unique tongue
print.
·
Surface area of small intestine
is 60 square meters.
·
Longest section of gut is small
intestine (5 meters).
·
Narrowest part of gut is
esophagus.
·
Widest part of gut is stomach.
·
Most acidic substance in body is
hydrochloric acid in stomach.
·
The stomach has to produce a new
layer of mucus every two weeks, otherwise it will digest itself.
·
The stomach can stretch to 50
times its empty size and hold 4 liters.
·
Cells with shortest life span are
epithelium of duodenum = 3 days.
·
Greenest substance in the body =
bile in the gall bladder.
·
Source of most diverse mixture of
digestive enzymes = pancreas.
·
Section of gut with richest blood
supply = jejunum of small intestine.
·
The left kidney is higher than
the right.
·
All the renal tubules laid end to
end = 60 meters.
·
A male’s urethra is five times
longer than a female’s.
·
The most worm-like organ in the
body is the ureter.
Chapter 18 The
Endocrine System, 7
Chapter 28 The
Reproductive Systems, 14
Chapter 29 Development,
21
Chapter 19 The
Blood, 23
Chapter 20 The
Heart, 30
Chapter 21 Blood
vessels and hemodynamics, 37
Chapter 22 The
Lymphatic System, nonspecific resistance to disease, & immunity, 43
Chapter 23 The
Respiratory System, 57
Chapter 24 The
Digestive System, 66
Chapter 25 Metabolism, 75
Chapter 26 The
Urinary System, 78
Chapter 27 Electrolytes
and acid base balance, 87
Chapter 18
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Endocrine
glands, hormone, hormone receptors and target cells: page 591-593.
Classification of Hormones (Fig. 18-2,
page 594-595)-
1. Amino acid derivatives: Derivatives
of tyrosine: Thyroid hormones, T3 and T4 and catecholamines epinephrine
(E), norepinephrine (NE), and dopamine.
Derivative
of tryptophan: melatonin
2. Peptide and protein hormones: eg.
insulin, antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin), thyroid-stimulating hormone
(TSH), oxytocin, growth hormone (GH),
and prolactin.
3. Lipid derivatives:
Steroid hormones- eg. cortisol,
testosterone, estrogens, and progesterone.
MECHANISMS OF HORMONE ACTION
Hormones and cell membrane
receptors (Fig. 18-3, page 597)-
First and second
messengers:
G-proteins
and cAMP:
1.
Hormone (first messenger) + receptor ® G protein
activation
2.
Activated G protein stimulates an enzyme called
adenylate cyclase which converts ATP to cAMP (second messenger)
3.
cAMP enzyme
activation ® hormone
effect. eg. E, NE, calcitonin, PTH, pituitary hormones, and glucagon
Hormones and intracellular
receptors (Fig. 18-4, page 598)- hormone + receptor (within the
cytoplasm [steroid hormones] or the nucleus [thyroid hormones]) ®
hormone-receptor complex ® activates
appropriate genes and stimulate the production of enzymes or hormones and other
proteins (hormone effect).
THE HYPOTHALAMUS (Fig.
18-5, page 599) secretes several releasing
and inhibiting hormones which act on the anterior pituitary to regulate the secretion
of pituitary hormones. The hypothalamus also produces two hormones, oxytocin
and ADH, which are stored in the posterior pituitary.
THE PITUITARY GLAND (Fig. 18-6,
page 601) - two parts: Anterior lobe or adenohypophysis and Posterior lobe or
neurohypophysis.
Hypophyseal portal system- connects
the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary (Fig. 18.7, page 602).
Hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract- connects
the hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary.
Hormones of the anterior lobe (Fig.
18-9, page 606; Table 18-2, page 607):
1. Growth Hormone (GH or somatotropin)-
stimulates body growth by increasing uptake of amino acids by the cells and by
stimulating protein synthesis (page 604).
Regulation
of GH secretion: GHRH GH; GHIH ¯ GH.
Growth hormone abnormalities:
Dwarfism-
Gigantism-
Acromegaly- oversecretion of GH in
adulthood.
2. Prolactin- mammary
glands to produce milk during lactation (page 603-604).
Control of
prolactin secretion: Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH) ¯
PRL.
3. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)- secretion
of T3 and T4.
Control
of TSH secretion: TRH TSH.
4.
Adrenocorticotropin
(ACTH)- secretion
of glucocorticoids.
Control of ACTH secretion: CRH ACTH.
Gonadotropins
(will be discussed along with reproductive hormones in chapter 28).
5.
Follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH)
6.
Luteinizing
hormone (LH)
Tropic
hormones:
Posterior lobe(Fig.
18-9, page 606; Table 18-2, page 607): stores and releases two hormones:
1.
Antidiuretic
hormone (ADH or vasopressin) (page 605)- regulates fluid balance in the body.
Diabetes insipidus- ADH
deficiency.
2.
Oxytocin-
important in the contraction of the uterus during childbirth and release of
milk from mammary glands during lactation (page 605).
THE THYROID GLAND-
Anatomy (Fig. 18-10, page 608)- isthmus,
thyroid follicles, colloid, and thyroglobulin.
Thyroid
follicles secrete two hormones: triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4).
Synthesis of thyroid hormones (Fig. 18-11a,
page 609)-
1.
Iodide trapping
2.
Iodide ®
iodine
3.
Addition of iodine to tyrosine to form T3 and T4.
Functions- Calorigenic effect- cellular
respiration fuel +
oxygen consumption body
temperature.
Control of
thyroid hormone secretion- TRH TSH T3 and T4
(Fig. 18.11b, page 609).
Thyroid gland disorders:
Cretinism- hypothyroidism during infancy.
Goiter- an enlarged thyroid gland which
could be due to Myxedema- adult
hypothyroidism or Graves’ disease-
hyperthyroidism.
The C cells of the Thyroid gland
and Calcitonin- produced by the thyroid gland in response to
increased Ca++ level in the blood.
THE PARATHYROID GLANDS- secrete
parathyroid hormone (PTH) or parathormone that regulates calcium level in the
blood (Fig. 18-12, page 611).
Regulation
of secretion of calcitonin and PTH (Fig. 18-13, page 612)-
Ca++
calcitonin; ¯ Ca++
PTH.
THE ADRENAL GLANDS- The
gland is organized into two regions: cortex and the medulla (Fig. 18-14, page 614).
The
adrenal Cortex- secretes mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids and sex steroids.
The cortex can be subdivided into three zones:
Zona glomerulosa: mineralocorticoids
(aldosterone)
Zona fasciculata: glucocorticoids
(cortisol)
Zona reticularis: androgens.
Aldosterone- main mineralocorticoid. Helps maintain
sodium and potassium balance and indirectly regulates body fluid volume and
blood pressure.
Regulation
of aldosterone secretion-
Renin-angiotensin
pathway–
¯ Blood
volume ¯ blood
pressure ® renin.
Renin converts angiotensinogen ®
angiotensin I ®
angiotensin II
aldosterone.
Cortisol- major glucocorticoid. Promotes
1.
Glucose synthesis and glycogen formation in the liver
2.
Lipolysis
3.
Protein catabolism and
4.
Antiinflammatory
effect.
Regulation
of Cortisol secretion- Stress CRH
secretion. CRH ® ACTH ® cortisol
Disorders of the adrenal cortex:
Addison’s disease- ¯
glucocorticoids.
Cushing’s disease-
glucocorticoids.
Zona
reticularis: androgens.
The
adrenal medulla- secretes epinephrine (E) and norepinephrine (NE)
which prepare the body to cope with stress.
THE PINEAL GLAND- secretes a hormone called
melatonin (page 616).
THE PANCREAS: the pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans: Fig. 18-15, page 617)
produce two major hormones:
1.
Insulin- ¯ blood
glucose level, storage
of glucose (in the form of glycogen or fat), amino acids and fatty acids within
the cells; protein
synthesis.
2.
Glucagon- blood
glucose level; mobilization of glucose (glycogenolysis), fatty acids, and amino
acids (gluconeogenesis).
Hypoglycemia- abnormally low blood glucose
levels.
Hyperglycemia:
Diabetes mellitus- glucose
level in the blood.
Two types:
Type I or insulin-dependent
diabetes mellitus.
Type II or
non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus.
Cause,
Symptoms, long-term effect on the body and treatment-
REVIEW
QUESTIONS
I. MATCH
THE FOLLOWING CHEMICAL CLASSES WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF HORMONES.
A. amino
acid derivatives b.
Peptides and proteins c. Steroids
1. ___________ are chains of 3 to about
200 amino acids. Most hormones are in this category.
2. ____________ are catecholamines,
including epinephrine and norepinephrine.
3. _____________ include thyroid
hormones (T3 and T4).
4. _____________ Derived from cholesterol
and includes hormones from adrenal cortex, ovary, and testis.
II. STUDY
THE
1. A hormone acts as the ____________
messenger.
2. Hormone binds to a receptor on the
____________ surface of the plasma membrane, causing activation of ___________
proteins.
3. Such activation increases activity
of the enzyme ____________________. This enzyme catalyzes conversion of ATP to
____________, which is known as the _______________ messenger.
4. Cyclic AMP then activates one or
more enzymes. The resulting chemical can then set off the target cell's
response. A number of hormones are known to act by means of the cAMP mechanism.
Included are most of the ___________ -soluble hormones.
III.
COMPLETE THE EXERCISE ABOUT THE PITUITARY GLAND.
1. The pituitary is also known as the
________________.
2. Seventy-five percent of the gland
consists of the _____________ lobe, called the ____________hypophysis. The
posterior lobe or ____________ hypophysis is somewhat smaller.
3. The hormones secreted by the
anterior pituitary are ______, _______, ______, ______, __________, and
____________.
4. Which four of the anterior pituitary
hormones are tropic hormones? __________, ____________, _____________, and
_____________.
5. Milk is produced in mammary glands
following stimulation by the hormone _______________ which is secreted by the
____________ pituitary. A different hormone causes ejection of milk from the
glands at the time of the baby's suckling. This hormone, named ____________, is
released by the ______________ pituitary.
IV.
POSTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES
1. Name the two hormones released by
the posterior pituitary: __________ and _______________
2. Although these hormones are released
by the posterior pituitary, they are actually synthesized by neurons in the
_______________. These chemicals are then transported by
_______________________ to the posterior pituitary where they are stored.
3. On a day when your body becomes
dehydrated, for example, by loss of much sweat, your ADH production is likely
to _______-crease. ADH causes kidneys to ________more water ____-creasing urine
output. ADH is also known as ______________________.
V. THYROID AND PARATHYROIDS
1. The follicular cells in the thyroid
gland produce two hormones _____________ and ______________. The parafollicular
(C) cells produce the hormone _______________.
2. The ________ ion is highly
concentrated in the thyroid because it is an essential component of T3 and T4.
T4 contains _________ I- whereas T3 contains ______ I-.
3. One way that PTH increases blood
calcium level is by stimulating kidney production of the active form of vitamin
_____ also known as ___________________, which facilitates _______(increased or
decreased?) absorption in the intestine.
VI. ADRENAL
CORTICAL HORMONE THAT IS MOST ABUNDANT IN EACH CATEGORY:
1. Name the major mineralocorticoid:
__________________
2. Name the major glucocorticoid:
____________________
VII.
PANCREAS
1. The pancreatic islets or islets of
Langerhans are located in the _______________. The name islets of Langerhans
suggests that these clusters of ________(endocrine or exocrine?) cells lie
amidst a "sea" of exocrine cells within the pancreas.
2. Glucagon is secreted by _______
cells. It ________________(increases or decreases?) blood glucose.
3. Glucagon is produced when glucose
level is _________.
4. Insulin __________________(increases
or decreases?) blood sugar.
VIII. FILL
IN THE BLANKS:
1. Induces sleep: ______________
2. Stimulates uterine contractions and
also breast milk let-down: ___________
3. Mimics many effects of sympathetic
nerves: __________________
4. Stimulates kidney tubules to produce
small volume of concentrated urine: _______________
IX. NAME
THE CONDITION IN THE BLANKS:
1. Deficiency of growth hormone in a
child; slow bone growth: _________________
2. Excess of amount of growth hormone
in an adult; enlargement of hands, feet, and jawbones: __________________
3. Deficiency of ADH; production of
enormous quantities of urine:___________
4. Deficiency of insulin; hyperglycemia
and glycosuria: ________________
5. Deficiency of thyroxin in a child;
short stature and mental retardation: ___________________
6. Deficiency of thyroxin in an adult;
edematous facial tissues, lethargy: __________________
7. Excess of thyroxin; protruding eyes,
"nervousness," weight loss:___________
FILL IN THE SPACES WITH QUESTION MARKS
|
HORMONE |
PRODUCED BY |
TARGET |
ACTION |
STIMULUS |
ABNORMALITIES
|
|
Oxytocin |
Hypothalamus |
Uterine smooth muscle and
mammary glands |
? |
Activation of stretch
receptors in the uterus and stimulation of nerve endings in the mammary
glands |
|
|
? |
Hypothalamus |
Kidney tubules |
Reabsorption of water |
Increased blood osmolarity |
Diabetes insipidus |
|
Growth hormone |
? |
Muscle, bone, cartilage,
adipose tissue |
Stimulate protein synthesis |
Low growth hormone in the
blood |
Dwarfism Gigantism Acromegaly |
|
Prolactin |
Anterior pituitary |
? |
Stimulates the secretion of
milk |
Decreased PIH |
|
|
? |
Anterior pituitary |
Thyroid gland |
Stimulates the secretion of
T3 and T4 |
Decreased T3 and T4 in the
blood |
|
|
ACTH |
? |
Adrenal cortex |
Stimulates the secretion of
cortisol (hydrocortisone) |
Decreased cortisol in the
blood; decreased glucose in the blood |
|
|
T3 and T4 |
? |
Throughout the body |
? |
? |
? |
|
? |
? |
? |
Increases blood calcium
levels |
? |
|
|
? |
'C' cells of thyroid
follicle |
? |
? |
? |
|
|
Aldosterone |
? |
kidney |
? |
? |
? |
|
Cortisol |
? |
Liver |
? |
? |
? |
|
Epinephrine |
Adrenal medulla |
Most of the body systems |
? |
? |
|
|
? |
Islets of Langerhans |
throughout the body |
Lowers blood glucose levels |
? |
? |
|
Glucagon |
? |
Liver |
? |
? |
|
Chapter 28
THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM- consists
of testes, epididymis, ductus deferens (vas deferens), ejaculatory duct, and
the urethra (Fig. 28-1, page 1031). The scrotum encloses the testes and penis
is an erectile organ.
Accessory reproductive glands are
seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral (Cowper’s) glands.
THE SCROTUM- is the
outpocketing of the abdomen (Fig. 28-3, page 1033).
Dartos
and Cremaster muscles-
The
spermatic cord (page 1031)-
Descent of
the testes (Fig. 28-2, page 1032)- testes move from the abdominal
cavity through the inguinal canal to the scrotum under the influence of
testosterone.
Cryptorchidism-
Inguinal Hernia-
TESTES (Fig. 28-4 and 28-5, page 1034-1035)-
are primary male sex organs.
Structure- lobules,
seminiferous tubules: Sertoli cells and spermatogenic cells: spermatogonia,
primary spermatocytes, secondary spermatocytes, spermatids, and sperms.
Sertoli or sustentacular cells (page
1038)- large cells found within the seminiferous tubules. Tight junctions at
the base forms blood-testis barrier. Germ cells (spermatocytes) pass between
adjacent Sertoli cells to the lumen. Sertoli cells secrete inhibin that inhibits FSH secretion and androgen-binding protein
(ABP) that helps testosterone bind to within the seminiferous tubule. They also
secrete mullerian-inhibiting factor (MIF) in the developing testes.
Cells of Leydig or interstitial cells- are
found outside the seminiferous tubules and secrete androgens (testosterone).
SPERMATOGENESIS- is the formation of sperm
(Fig. 28-7, page 1037).
Spermatogonia
(2n, stem cells in the wall of the seminiferous tubules)
¯ differentiation
primary
spermatocyte (2n)
¯ meiosis I
2
secondary spermatocytes (n)
¯ meiosis
II
4
spermatids (n)
¯ spermiogenesis (differentiation)
4
spermatozoa (sperms) (n)
Structure
of the sperm- 3 parts: the head, the midpiece and a tail. Acrosome,
present at the tip of the head, is important in the process of fertilization
(Fig. 28-8, page 1039).
THE EPIDIDYMIS (Fig. 28-9, page 1040)- consists
of a head, body, and a tail. Stores sperms and facilitate their functional
maturation. Recycles damaged sperms and also monitor and adjust the composition
of the tubular fluid.
THE VAS DEFERENS OR DUCTUS DEFERENS (page 1041
and Fig. 28-10, page 1042)- transfers sperms from the epididymis to the
ejaculatory duct and also store sperms.
Ampulla- enlarged end of ductus deferens.
Vasectomy-
EJACULATORY DUCTS- vas deferens from each
side + the duct from the seminal vesicles ® ejaculatory duct (Fig. 28-10, page 1042).
THE URETHRA (page 1041 and Fig. 28-11, page
1043)- is divided into three portions: the prostatic,
membranous, and penile or spongy
urethra. It is the passageway used by both the urinary and reproductive
systems.
ACCESSORY REPRODUCTIVE GLANDS
THE SEMINAL VESICLES- secrete 60%
of the fluid found in the semen (page 1041 and Fig. 28-10, page 1042).
THE PROSTATE GLAND- secretes an acidic milky
fluid (page 1042 and Fig. 28-10, page 1042).
Prostate cancer (page 1047)-
BULBOURETHRAL GLANDS OR COWPER'S GLANDS-
neutralize the acidity of the urethra in preparation for ejaculation (Fig.
28-10, page 1042 and page 1043).
SEMEN- consists of sperms and secretions
from the male reproductive glands (page 1043).
Semen analysis-
PENIS (Fig. 28-.11, page 1043)- is
divided into three regions: the root, the body, and the enlarged tip, the glans
penis.
The penis
also consists of three columns of erectile tissue. Two of these columns are
referred to as the corpora cavernosa and the other column is corpus spongiosum
which expands to form a cap called the glans penis. Dilation of the erectile tissue with blood produces erection. A
loose fold of skin called the prepuce
or foreskin covers the glans penis.
Circumcision (page 1044)-
Hormonal regulation- GnRH
(hypothalamus) LH and
FSH (anterior pituitary). FSH
spermatogenesis. LH acts on Leydig cells and androgen (testosterone) secretion (Fig. 2812, page 1045).
EFFECTS OF ANDROGENS-
differentiation of the male genitals and reproductive duct system, descent of
the testes, puberty, maintenance of spermatogenesis, accessory sex organs,
secondary sexual characteristics, and initiating and maintaining normal male
sexual behavior.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM consists
of the ovaries, uterine tubes (fallopian tubes), uterus, vagina, and external
genitalia (Fig. 28-13, page 1048 and Fig. 28-14, page 1049).
THE OVARIES- are primary female sex organs.
Ligaments-
OOGENESIS (Fig. 28-15, page 1050)- is the
production of a secondary oocyte (growing ovum).
OOGONIA- are diploid cells that complete
their mitotic division before birth and produce primary oocytes. Primary
oocytes begin their meiosis but stop at prophase of meiosis I. The small, round
structure that contains primary oocyte is referred to as a primary
follicle.
Primary
oocyte ® secondary
oocyte and first polar body. The secondary oocyte is suspended in metaphase II.
Oogonia (diploid cells formed during
prenatal life)
¯
primary oocyte (during 3rd month of prenatal
development; diploid)
¯ puberty
(meiosis I)
secondary oocyte (haploid) + 1st polar body
¯ovulation
secondary
oocyte released into the fallopian tube.
¯
fertilization ® meiosis
II
ovum (haploid) + 2nd polar body.
Ovarian Cycle (Fig.
28-16, page 1051)- Ovarian follicles: primary, secondary, and tertiary
(Graafian) or mature follicles.
OVULATION- is the release of secondary
oocyte.
Corpus Luteum- is the
ruptured follicle that becomes a new endocrine gland. It secretes progesterone
and estrogens, which control changes in the accessory sex organs in the second
half of menstrual cycle, and prepares the endometrium for the reception of a
fertilized ovum.
Corpus Albicans-
degenerated, nonfunctional corpus luteum.
THE UTERINE OR FALLOPIAN TUBES (Fig. 28-17,
page 1053)- fimbriae, ampulla:
Peristaltic
contractions and the ciliated epithelium help move the secondary oocyte through
the uterine tubes. Fertilization occurs within the fallopian tube. If there is no fertilization, secondary
oocyte degenerates in this tube.
THE UTERUS- is divided into the fundus, the body,
and the cervix. Isthmus marks the junction of the cervix and the body (Fig.
28-18, page 1054).
Histology of the uterus (Fig. 28-19,
page 1055):
The wall
of the body and fundus of the uterus consists of three layers:
Endometrium- basal layer (stratum basalis)
and functional layer (stratum functionalis).
Myometrium- a very thick layer that is made
up of layers of smooth muscle.
Perimetrium or serosa- thin layer of
connective tissue.
Endometriosis- growth of endometrial tissue
outside the uterus.
Uterine prolapse-
Pap smear-
Hysterectomy-
The Uterine Cycle (Fig.
28-20, page 1056)- is divided into three phases:
1.
Menstrual
phase- degeneration of the functional layer of the endometrium
2.
The
proliferative phase or preovulatory phase or follicular phase-
formation of the Graafian follicle in the ovary and reorganization of the
functional layer of the endometrium
3.
The
secretory phase or postovulatory phase or luteal phase-
formation of the corpus luteum within the ovary and thickening of the functional
layer of the endometrium
Menarche-
Amenorrhea- no menstruation until age 16
THE VAGINA-
The External Genitalia (Vulva or Pudendum)- consists
of vestibule, labia minora (labium minus), clitoris, prepuce, labia majora and
mons pubis (Fig. 28-22, page 1058)
MAMMARY GLANDS (Fig. 28-23, page 1059)-
are the organs of milk production (lactation). Nipple (papilla), areola, lobes,
lactiferous duct, lactiferous sinus, lobule, and alveoli
Breast cancer (page 1060)-
Hormones and the preovulatory
period (Fig. 28-25, page 1063 and Fig. 28-26, page 1064)-
1.
GnRH FSH + LH® growth of
the follicle estrogens
2.
About the 12th or the 13th day, due to prolonged high
level of estrogens GnRH
(positive feedback effect)
3.
A sudden surge of LH + FSH ® ovulation
Hormones and the Postovulatory
period in a nonpregnant cycle (page 1045)- The remaining
Graafian follicle ® corpus
luteum. Enlargement of the corpus luteum ® more progesterone + estrogens ® continued
thickening of the endometrium. High concentration of estrogens and progesterone
¯ GnRH ¯ LH + FSH
On day 22
or 23 of the cycle, corpus luteum involutes.
¯ estrogens
and progesterone ® arteries
in the uterine wall constrict + endometrium becomes ischemic. Damaged arteries
rupture and bleed and cells die ® the functional layer of the uterus is detached and
discarded (menstruation).
¯ estrogens
and progesterone GnRH and
the cycle starts again
Menopause- ¯
responsiveness to LH and FSH by the ovaries¯ estrogen and progesterone ® irregular ovarian cycle ® regression of reproductive structures (page 1057)
REVIEW
QUESTIONS
27.
To which structures do the mesovarium, ovarian
ligament, and suspensory ligament anchor the ovary?
28.
Describe the structure of ovary.
29.
What structures in the ovary contain endocrine tissue
and what hormones do they secrete?
30.
What happens to most ovarian follicles?
31.
Follow the growth cycle of an ovarian follicle from
the time it is formed to the time it is disintegrated as corpus albicans
(ovarian cycle) in a nonpregnant woman.
32.
Define and describe oogenesis.
33.
Describe the structure of a mature (Graafian)
follicle.
34.
Define ovulation.
35.
When is meiosis completed in the oocyte?
36.
Describe the structure and function of the uterine
(fallopian) tube.
37.
What are the three parts of the uterus?
38.
What are the three layers in the wall of the uterus?
39.
What are the two layers of the endometrium? Which one
is shed during menstruation?
40.
Define episiotomy, hysterectomy, endometriosis, and
uterine prolapse.
41.
Describe the structure of a mammary gland.
42.
Which hormones regulate milk synthesis and release?
43.
Name the functions of the female reproductive
hormones.
44.
Summarize the uterine cycle.
45.
Summarize the relation between GnRH, LH, FSH,
estrogens, and progesterone in the ovarian and uterine cycles.
46.
Which hormone stimulates proliferation of the
endometrium? Ovulation? Growth of the corpus luteum? The surge of LH at
midcycle?
47.
Which hormones stimulate rebuilding of the stratum
functionalis (functional layer of the endometrium)?
48.
Define preovulatory phase (proliferative) &
postovulatory (luteal) phase.
49.
Define menstruation.
50.
When does ovulation occur in a typical menstrual
cycle?
51.
Define menarche, amenorrhea, and menopause.
I. IDENTIFY THE FEMALE STRUCTURES DESCRIBED.
1. _______________ chamber that houses
the developing fetus.
2. _________________ usual site of
fertilization.
3. _______________ duct through which
the ovum travels to reach the uterus.
4. ____________ Primary female
reproductive organ.
II. MATCH THE FOLLOWING:
a. oogonium b. primary oocyte c. secondary oocyte
d. ovum
1. _________ forming part of the
primary follicle in the ovary.
2. ____________ in the uterine tube
before fertilization.
3. ____________ in the Graafian
follicle of the ovary.
4. _____________ in the uterine tube
shortly after sperm penetration.
III. MATCH THE FOLLOWING:
a. mitosis b. meiosis c. both mitosis and meiosis
1. ____________ final product is two
daughter cells, each with 46 chromosomes.
2. ____________ final product is four
daughter cells, each with 23 chromosomes.
3. ______________ involves prophase,
metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
4. ______________ Occurs only in
gonads.
5. _______daughter cells have the same
number and types of chromosomes as the mother cell.
6. ___________ daughter cells are
different from the mother cell in their chromosomal makeup.
7. ____________ provides cells for the
reproduction of offspring.
IV. FILL IN THE BLANKS
1. Discharge of a secondary oocyte from
the ovary about once each month is a process referred to as ___________________
2. The inferior narrow portion of the
uterus that opens into the vagina is the _________
3. The clusters of milk-secreting cells
of the mammary glands are referred to as ______
4. The distal end of the penis is a
slightly enlarged region called the ______________
5. Covering the slightly enlarged
region of the penis is a loosely fitting skin called the ________
6. The circular pigmented area
surrounding each nipple of the mammary glands is the _______
7. After a secondary oocyte leaves the
ovary, it enters the open, funnel-shaped distal end of the uterine (fallopian)
tube called the _____________
8. The portion of a sperm cell that
contains the nucleus and acrosome is the ________
9. Vasectomy refers to removal of a
portion of the _________________
10. The mass of erectile tissue in the
penis that contains the spongy urethra is the __________
11. The superior dome-shaped portion of
the uterus is called the ________________
12. The passageway for menstrual flow
and inferior portion of the birth canal is the ___________
13. Two longitudinal folds of skin that
extend inferiorly and posteriorly from the mons pubis are covered with pubic
hair are the ________________
14. The _________ is a small mass of
erectile tissue at the anterior junction of the labia minora.
15. The phase of the menstrual cycle
between days 6 and 13 during which endometrial repair occurs is the
___________________ phase.
16. During menstruation, the stratum
__________________ of the endometrium is sloughed off.
17. The most immature spermatogenic
cells are called ______________
18. The hypothalamic hormone that
controls the uterine and ovarian cycles is ______________
19. High levels of estrogens exert a
positive feedback on LH and GnRH that cause _____________________
20. The result of meiosis in
spermatogenesis is that each primary spermatocyte produces four __
21. The stage of spermatogenesis that
results in maturation of spermatids into sperm cells is called
____________________
22. The clear, glycoprotein layer
between the oocyte and granulosa cells is called the _________
23. _________________ refers to the
functional changes that sperm cells undergo in the female reproductive tract
that allow them to fertilize a secondary oocyte.
24. At the end of the ____________ month
of development, the testes descend into the scrotum.
25. The average amount of semen per
ejaculation is ____________ ml.
26. The average range of number of sperm
is _____________/ml. When the count falls below _________________/ml, the male
is likely to be sterile.
27. Most of the uterus consists of
___________-metrium which is made of ___________
28. The average duration of the
menstrual cycle is _________ days. The menstrual phase usually lasts about
_________ days. Following the menstrual phase is the _______________ phase.
Following ovulation is the ____________ phase.
29. Upon fertilization, the secondary
oocyte completes meiosis _____, forming the fertilized ovum and releasing a
____________ body.
DEVELOPMENT
Fertilization- is the
fusion of the sperm and the ovum producing a zygote (Fig. 29-1, page 1076).
Capacitation- changes
that occur in the sperm as it passes through the female reproductive tract
before it reaches the secondary oocyte (page 1040).
Multiple births (page 1094)-
1.
Identical twins (monozygotic)
2. Conjoined or Siamese twins
3.
Fraternal (dizygotic) twins.
Cleavage and blastocyst formation (Fig. 29-2, page 1079)- zygote ® morula
(day 4) ®
blastocyst (day 6).
The cells
of the blastocyst are arranged into a peripheral layer called the trophoblast
and an inner group known as the inner cell mass. The fluid filled space
is called blastocoele. Zona pellucida disintegrates and the blastocyst
enlarges.
Implantation (Fig. 29-3,
page 1080)- trophoblast cells of the embryo on the side of implantation
differentiate and form two distinct cell populations: the inner cytotrophoblast and the outer syncytiotrophoblast: villi.
Formation
of the amniotic cavity: cytotrophoblast proliferates and form amnion adjacent
to the inner cell mass. Inner cell mass at this stage is called embryonic disc.
It has two layers: ectoderm and endoderm.
Twelfth day after fertilization: cells of
the endoderm form yolk sac.
Gastrulation and germ layer
formation (14 day)- results in the formation of three distinct layers:
ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm. The layer of the inner cell mass that lines
the blastocoele develops into the embryonic disc ® embryo.
The formation of extraembryonic membranes (Fig.
29-5, page 1083)- four membranes: yolk sac, amnion, chorion, and allontois.
Placentation (Fig.
29-5, page 1083)- endometrium ® decidua:
decidua basalis, capsularis, perietalis. Chorionic villi extend outward into
the maternal tissues, forming a network through which maternal blood flows.
Embryogenesis (Fig. 29-5, page 1083 and Table
29-2, page 1086)- Embryonic disc ® head fold and tail fold ® differentiation of organs
Maternal changes (Fig. 29-9, page 1090)-
Hormones of pregnancy- hCG,
relaxin, estrogens, progesterone, prolactin and oxytocin.
Labor (Parturition) (Fig.
29-11, page 1093)- childbirth.
Dilation stage-
Expulsion stage- childbirth.
Placental
stage- ‘afterbirth’.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
Define fertilization.
2.
Define capacitation.
3.
Define the terms: dizygotic (fraternal), monozygotic
(identical), and conjoined twins.
4.
What is a zygote?
5.
What is a morula? When is it formed?
6.
What is a blastocyst? When is it formed? How is it
different from the morula?
7.
Define implantation. How does it occur?
8.
What is gastrulation? When does it occur?
9.
How is the embryo formed?
10.
What are the four extraembryonic membranes? What is
their importance?
11.
Describe placentation.
12.
What is the function of the placenta?
13.
List the hormones that are involved in pregnancy and
their role in pregnancy.
14.
Which hormone serves as the basis of early pregnancy
tests? Why?
15.
Define labor. What are the three stages of labor?
MATCH THE FOLLOWING:
Key words: a. amnion b.
chorionic villi c. endometrium d. fertilization
e. fetus f. placenta g. umbilical cord h. zygote
1. _____________ the fertilized egg.
2. _____________ secretes estrogen and
progesterone to maintain the pregnancy.
3. _______________helps form the
placenta.
4. _____________ fluid-filled sac,
surrounding the developing embryo/fetus.
5. ______________ attaches the embryo
to the placenta.
6. _____________ fingerlike projections
of the blastocyst.
7. _____________ The embryo after 8
weeks.
8. _____________ the organ that
delivers nutrients to and disposes of wastes for the fetus.
FILL IN THE BLANKS
9. The
trophoblast is composed of two layers known as the _______________ and
__________
10.
Implantation
is likely to occur about ________ days after ovulation.
Chapter 19
THE BLOOD
FUNCTIONS-
Blood helps with transportation, regulation of pH and electrolyte composition, defense,
body temperature and blood clotting (page 640)
Composition
of blood (Fig. 19-1, page 641)-
Volume- 5
L.
pH- 7.35 -
7.45
Viscosity-
COMPONENTS
OF THE BLOOD (Fig. 19-1, page 641)-
PLASMA- is the
fluid matrix of blood. Contains about 92% water, about 7% protein and varying
amounts of inorganic and organic substances (Table 19.1, page 636)
Plasma
proteins- three types: albumins-
60%, globulins- 35% and
fibrinogen-
4%
Serum- plasma
without its clotting factors
FORMED ELEMENTS are blood
cells and fragments suspended in the plasma (Table 19-3, page 658)
Hematocrit- Percentage of blood cells in the
blood
Hemopoiesis or Hematopoiesis-
formation of blood cells (Fig. 19-10, page 659)
Red blood cells (RBC) or
erythrocytes (Fig. 19-2, page 645)-
Structure- biconcave discs; lack nuclei and
mitochondria; life span: 120 days; contain hemoglobin
Hemoglobin- the
oxygen-carrying pigment that gives the RBC and the blood red color
Structure of hemoglobin (Fig.
19-3, page 646)-
Erythropoiesis:
production of RBCs (Fig. 19-5, page 648).
Anemia- Sickle cell anemia-
Pernicious
anemia-
Iron-deficiency anemia-
Thalassemia-
LIFE CYCLE
OF RBCs (Fig. 19-4, page 647)-
1.
Globin-
2.
Iron- transferrin: ferritin and hemosiderin.
3.
Heme units- heme ® biliverdin ® bilirubin
®
conjugated bilirubin ® bilirubin-derived
products ® some
absorbed into blood and then excreted through kidneys and the rest are
converted to urobilins and stercobilins and eliminated along with feces.
BLOOD
GROUP SYSTEM (Fig. 19-6 and Table 19-2, page 651)- Based on the type of antigen
present on the RBC, the blood group is divided into four types: A, B, AB, and
O. Antibodies against these antigens produced are as follows:
Blood type Antibodies (agglutinins) in the plasma (antigen or
agglutinogen the RBC)
A
B
B
A
O
A
and B ‘universal donor’
AB None
‘universal recipient’
Rh FACTOR- another
group of antigens present on the RBC. An individual with the Rh factor is Rh
positive; and the person without Rh factor is Rh negative (page 652)
Hemolytic disease of the newborn or Erythroblastosis
fetalis (Fig. 19-8, page 653)- fetus with abnormally low level of
RBCs.
RhoGam-
antibody injection to remove antigens before the maternal immune system is
triggered to produce its own antibodies
White blood cells (WBC) or
leukocytes- defend the body against disease-causing agents. Exhibit chemotaxis and diapedesis.
Types of WBCs: WBCs are classified into two
groups (Fig. 19-9, page 655):
1.
Granular
leukocytes- include neutrophils,
eosinophils, and basophils.
2.
Agranular
leukocytes- include monocytes
and lymphocytes.
Leukocytopenia-
Leukocytosis-
Leukemia-
Platelets or thrombocytes (page 660)- are not
complete cells. They are tiny fragments of membrane-enclosed cytoplasm that are
pinched off from megakaryocytes, giant cells in the bone marrow. Important in
blood clotting.
Thrombocytopenia-
Thrombocytosis-
Hemostasis (page 661)-
arrest of bleeding. Three phases:
1. Vascular spasm-
vasoconstriction (Fig. 19-11 page 661).
2. Platelet plug formation- damage
to endothelium of blood vessels exposes collagen, platelets stick to collagen,
release ADP + serotonin + thromboxane A2 ®vasoconstriction
(Fig. 19-11 page 661). ADP and thromboxane A2 cause additional
platelets to aggregate at the site of injury producing a platelet plug.
3. The Coagulation Phase (Fig. 19-12,
page 662)-
Clotting
factors- Ca++ + 11 different proteins (Table 19-4, 9age
663). Except for a few which are made by the activated platelets, all others
are made by the liver and are in circulation.
Vitamin K-
stimulates the synthesis of four of the coagulating factors.
Extrinsic pathway- damaged tissues release a
chemical called tissue factor (TF; Factor III) that initiates a shortcut to the
production of a clot. Since this chemical is not part of blood, it is called
the extrinsic pathway. TF and calcium ions together activate factor X which in
the presence of factor V forms prothrombinase.
Intrinsic pathway- This pathway produces
clot without any external chemicals other than the blood components (no TF).
Activation of one type of clotting factor activates another and another and
eventually form prothrombinase.
Common Pathway- prothrombin ® thrombin.
Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin ® CLOT FORMATION.
Hemophilia- inadequate coagulation.
Clot
retraction- tightening of the fibrin clot.
Fibrinolysis-
Plasminogen ® plasmin
(fibinolysin) ® dissolves
blood clot.
Control of
Clot formation- anticoagulants prevent coagulation.
Anticoagulants- Antithrombin III, heparin,
thrombomodulin, warfarin (coumadin) and prostacyclin.
Thrombus and Embolus-
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
Describe major functions of the blood.
2.
Describe important components of the blood.
3.
How much of the volume of whole blood is plasma?
4.
Name the three major groups of plasma proteins and
give a function for each group.
5.
What is hemoglobin? Describe its structure.
6.
What is the average red blood cell count for a
healthy man and woman? Range? Average blood volume?
7.
What is the pH of blood? Is blood more viscous or
less viscous compared to water?
8.
Define serum.
9.
Define hematocrit. Give the normal average and range
of hematocrit in the male and female.
10.
Describe the life cycle of an erythrocyte.
11.
How do deficiencies in vitamin B12 and iron affect
red blood cell production?
12.
Give a cause for each of these anemia: pernicious,
iron deficiency, sickle cell, and thalassemia.
13.
Name and give the functions of all five types of
leukocytes. Give the % of each of these in total WBCs.
14.
Define leukocytosis and leukocytopenia.
15.
What is the normal platelet count and what is
thrombocytopenia?
16.
Define hemostasis.
17.
List the major steps leading to the formation of a
blood clot. How is extrinsic different from intrinsic pathway?
18.
What are the functions of vitamin K, thrombin,
fibrin, and calcium in clotting?
19.
What are anticoagulants? Give examples and the
mechanism by which they work.
20.
Define hemophilia, thrombus, and embolus.
21.
Define ABO blood types.
22.
Where are agglutinogens (antigens) and agglutinins
(antibodies) located?
23.
Explain the basis of Rh blood types.
24.
What is hemolytic disease of the newborn or erythroblastosis
fetalis? How can it be corrected?
KEY CHOICES:
a. red
blood cell b. megakaryocyte c. eosinophil d. basophil
e.
monocyte f. neutrophil g. lymphocyte h. formed elements
i.
Plasma
1. Most numerous leukocyte _________________
2. Granular leukocytes
________________, ______________, and ______________
3. Also called an erythrocyte,
anucleated _________________________
4. Agranular leukocytes
______________________ and ______________________
5. Fragments to form platelets
_________________________
6. Increases during allergy
________________________
7. Releases histamine during
inflammatory reactions _____________________
8. Contains hemoglobin; therefore
involved in oxygen transport ___________________
9. Primarily water, noncellular; the
fluid matrix of blood _____________________
10. Least numerous leukocyte
_________________________
11. Also called white blood cells
________________, ________________, ______________, _________________, and
_______________________
1. White blood cells move into and out
of blood vessels by the process of chemotaxis. ______
2. An abnormal decrease in the number
of white blood cells is leukocytopenia. __________
3. The normal pH range of blood is
7.00-7.45 ___________________
4. An abnormal increase in the number
of red blood cells is leukocytosis. _____________
5. An anemia resulting from a decreased
RBC number causes the blood to become more viscous. _______
6. Phagocytic agranular WBCs are
eosinophils________________________.
7. The leukocytes particularly
important in the immune response are monocytes____________________.
CIRCLE THE TERM THAT DOES NOT BELONG
IN EACH OF THE FOLLOWING GROUPINGS.
FILL IN THE BLANKS:
1. Volume of blood in an average
adult is ___________________________
2. Name two hormones that regulate volume and osmotic
pressure of blood: _____________ and ____________
3. In centrifuged blood, layers of
blood from top to bottom of the tube are:
____________, _______________________ and _______________________. Which
layer contains the red blood cells? _______________________.
4. ____________________ makes up
about 92% of plasma.
5. _______________________
constitutes about 54% of plasma protein.
6. _________________made by liver; a
protein found in the plasma, and is used in clotting.
7. _______________ is the antibody
protein present in the plasma.
8. A protein that is found in least abundance in plasma
____________________
9. ____________________
makes up over 99% of all formed elements.
10. _________________ are not truly cells, but fragments of
cells.
11. A normal range of hematocrit for adult women is
_________________%; adult males should have hematocrit in the range of ______________%.
12. The hemoglobin molecule consists
of a central portion, which is a protein called __________________ with four
polypeptide chains called _________________.
13. Each heme contains one
____________ atom on which a molecule of _______________ can be transported so
that each hemoglobin molecule can carry ______ molecules.
14. Old RBCs are phagocytosed by
macrophages in the _________, ________, and ____________. Hemoglobin is then
recycled: globin is broken into ______________ and hemes are degraded into the
metal ______________ and a non-iron portion. Iron is transported to
_________________ where it is used for the formation of new ____________
molecules. The non-iron portion of heme is converted to the green pigment
_________________ and the orange pigment _______________. Bilirubin has two
possible fates. It may pass in blood from bone marrow to liver and be used to
form ____________________.
15. __________ vitamin is necessary
for normal hemoglobin formation.
16. _________________ hormone produced by kidneys stimulates
erythropoiesis in red bone marrow.
17. _________________ produced by
the stomach lining is necessary for normal vitamin B12 absorption.
18. Average life of a red blood cell is ______________
months.
19. RBC count in 1 micro liter (mm3) is
_____________________
20. Number of RBCs produced each
second by a healthy human adult is _______________
21. Number of hemoglobin molecules in one red blood cell is
_________________________
22. Which type of white blood cell
has a large kidney-shaped nucleus? _________________
23. Which WBC has a nucleus that occupies most of the cell?
___________________.
24. Which three WBCs are granulocytes? _______________,
_________________, and ___________________
25. A normal range of platelet count is ________________/mm3.
26. The primary function of
platelets is related to
_____________________
27. Hemostasis means
_________________. The three basic mechanisms of hemostasis are
a. __________________________, b.
__________________ and c. ____________
28. Most clotting factors are
synthesized by __________________. Others are released by activated
______________________.
29. One important factor called
_________________ factor, is released from damaged cells.
30. Fibrinogen is not converted to
fibrin unless the enzyme ______________ is present.
31. The enzyme required to convert
prothrombin to thrombin is ______________
32. __________________ is a
fast-acting anticoagulant that blocks action of thrombin. It is produced in the
body by mast cells and basophils, but also available in pharmacological
preparations.
33. Thrombus is a blood
_______________.
34. ___________________ is a
‘clot-on-the-run’ dislodged from the site at which it formed.
35. Aspirin is used to ___________________
(prevent/promote) hemostasis, so it can lower risk of thrombi in cerebral,
coronary, and peripheral arteries.
36. ABO group consists of four
possible blood types: _____, _____, _____ and _____.
37. Type B blood has ___________
antigens on RBCs and ___________ antibodies in blood plasma.
38. The Rh ______ group is more
common. Rh ________ persons can develop antibodies when they are exposed to Rh
____ blood.
39. When a mother who is Rh
___________ has a baby who is Rh ________ and some of the baby’s blood enters
the mother’s bloodstream, the mother develops anti-Rh antibodies that may cross
the placenta in future pregnancies and hemolyze the RBCs of Rh _______ babies. 40.
Such a condition is known as ________________________
41. Type A blood has ________antigen
on RBCs. Type A blood most likely has the _________antibodies in blood plasma.
If a person with type A blood receives type B blood, the recipient’s
___________ antibodies will attack the _____ antigens on the donor’s cells.
42. Type O blood has often been
called the universal ______________ because blood lacks ______________ of the
ABO group. Conversely, type ______ has been called the universal recipient.
KEY WORDS: a. Pernicious
b. Sickle cell c.
Thalassemia
1. ____________ Condition in which intrinsic factor is not
produced, so absorption of vitamin B12 is inadequate.
2. ____________ inherited condition in
which hemoglobin forms stiff rod-like structures causing erythrocytes to assume
sickle shape and rupture, reducing oxygen supply to tissues.
3. __________ inherited condition in
which either alpha or beta chains of hemoglobin is abnormal resulting in
decreased hemoglobin in RBCs.
|
BLOOD TYPE |
ANTIGEN |
ANTIBODY |
CAN DONATE BLOOD
TO TYPE |
CAN RECEIVE
BLOOD FROM TYPE |
|
A |
|
|
|
|
|
B |
|
|
|
|
|
AB |
|
|
|
|
|
O |
|
|
|
|
Chapter 20
THE HEART
Location
(Fig. 20-2, page 671)-
Pericardium (Fig. 20-2, page 671): parietal
and visceral (epicardium)
Pericarditis and Cardiac tamponade (page 672)-
WALL OF THE
HEART- endocardium, myocardium, and epicardium (Fig. 20-4, page 673)
Cardiac
muscle- sarcoplasmic reticulum, Transverse or T tubules, and
intercalated discs (Fig. 20-5, page 674)
Chambers of the heart: (Fig. 20-6
page 676)
Valves of the heart: Atrioventricular
(AV) and Semilunar (aortic and pulmonary) valves (Fig. 20-8, page 679)-
Chordae
Tendineae and Papillary muscles-
Rheumatic heart disease:
Right
Atrium- receives superior and inferior vena cavae and coronary
sinus
Foramen ovale ® fossa
ovalis
Right AV valve: tricuspid valve
Right
Ventricle® pulmonary
semilunar valve (tricuspid valve) ® pulmonary trunk ® pulmonary arteries
Left
Atrium- receives two pairs of pulmonary veins
Left AV valve- mitral or bicuspid valve
Left
ventricle- aortic semilunar (tricuspid) valve® ascending
aorta
Blood
supply (Coronary Circulation) (Fig. 20-9, page 681)-
Coronary arteries- right and left.
Coronary veins- cardiac veins ® coronary
sinus ® right
atrium.
Ischemic
heart disease (page 682)-
Coronary
ischemia-
Angina
Pectoris-
Myocardial
infarction (MI) or Heart attack (page 691)-